{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,19]],"date-time":"2026-10-19T03:21:49Z","timestamp":1792380109418,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"CSIRO Publishing","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,1]],"date-time":"2025-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1746057600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":1808,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1071\/journalslicense"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,14]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper reviews the small but growing literature on the water footprint (WF) of livestock production and provides an analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of this indicator. We identified 42 papers published in peer-reviewed international journals between 2000 and 2017, which covered the WF of dairy, meat and egg production using life-cycle assessment and WF network methodologies. The WF of livestock products decreases with the level of intensification of the farming system. In addition, the WF of meat is higher than that of either milk or eggs. The WF of beef is much larger than the WFs from sheep, goat, pork and chicken. The WF variation among different animal products is explained by the difference of the feed conversion ratio. Ruminants (cattle, sheep and goat) have a poor feed conversion ratio compared with monogastric animals (poultry and swine). Estimating the WF of livestock production and economic analysis of water use at different stages of production will help farmers and other stakeholders to identify the most demanding activities in term of water use, and implement strategies to improve water-use efficiency. Thus, feed production was identified as the largest contributor of the WF of livestock production. Options to reduce the WF of livestock production include the use of low-WF feeds, more efficient irrigation of crops used for livestock feed, and reduced consumption of animal-sourced protein in human diets through substitution with plant proteins. The strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats analysis highlighted the importance of combining WF with other environmental-footprint and sustainability indicators to provide more reliable information for decision makers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1071\/an17705","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,18]],"date-time":"2020-05-18T19:13:03Z","timestamp":1589829183000},"page":"1369-1380","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":58,"title":["Water footprint of livestock products and production systems: a review"],"prefix":"10.1071","volume":"60","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3498-930X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"R.","family":"Ibidhi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"ALaboratoire des Productions Animales et Fourrag\u00e8res, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique de Tunisie (INRAT), Universit\u00e9 de Carthage, 2049 Ariana, Tunisia."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"H.","family":"Ben Salem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ALaboratoire des Productions Animales et Fourrag\u00e8res, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique de Tunisie (INRAT), Universit\u00e9 de Carthage, 2049 Ariana, Tunisia."},{"name":"BCorresponding author. Email: bensalem.hichem@yahoo.com"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"67","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"2025122718474384600_R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agee.2015.02.015","article-title":"Trends and spatial variation in water and land footprints of meat and milk production systems in Kenya.","volume":"205","author":"Bosire","year":"2015","journal-title":"Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/s11367-014-0814-2","article-title":"Analysis of water use impact assessment methods (part A): evaluation of modeling choices based on a quantitative comparison of scarcity and human health indicators.","volume":"20","author":"Boulay","year":"2015","journal-title":"The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R3"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolecon.2010.11.012","article-title":"The blue, green and grey water footprint of rice from production and consumption perspectives.","volume":"70","author":"Chapagain","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ecological Economics"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2325","DOI":"10.5194\/hess-18-2325-2014","article-title":"Quantifying the human impact on water resources: a critical review of the water footprint concept.","volume":"18","author":"Chenoweth","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hydrology and Earth System Sciences"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1038\/s41893-019-0242-1","article-title":"The impact of nutrient-rich food choices on agricultural water-use efficiency.","volume":"2","author":"Damerau","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature Sustainability"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1007\/s11367-012-0446-3","article-title":"Assessing environmental impacts associated with freshwater consumption along the life cycle of animal products: the case of Dutch milk production in Noord-Brabant.","volume":"18","author":"De Boer","year":"2013","journal-title":"The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2015.05.023","article-title":"Sustainability of the water footprint of the Spanish pork industry.","volume":"57","author":"de Miguel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecological Indicators"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.2527\/af.2012-0036","article-title":"Water use by livestock: a global perspective for a regional issue?","volume":"2","author":"Doreau","year":"2012","journal-title":"Animal Frontiers"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.5194\/adgeo-27-65-2010","article-title":"Water footprint analysis for the assessment of milk production in Brandenburg (Germany).","volume":"27","author":"Drastig","year":"2010","journal-title":"Advances in Geosciences"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2011.12.009","article-title":"The water footprint of soy milk and soy burger and equivalent animal products.","volume":"18","author":"Ercin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecological Indicators"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R12"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2011.06.017","article-title":"Integrating ecological, carbon and water footprint into a \u2018footprint family\u2019 of indicators: definition and role in tracking human pressure on the planet.","volume":"16","author":"Galli","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecological Indicators"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wri.2013.03.001","article-title":"The water footprint of poultry, pork and beef: a comparative study in different countries and production systems.","volume":"1\u20132","author":"Gerbens-Leenes","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water Resources and Industry"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1017\/S0021859609990487","article-title":"Opportunities for improving irrigation efficiency with quantitative models, soil water sensors and wireless technology.","volume":"148","author":"Greenwood","year":"2010","journal-title":"The Journal of Agricultural Science"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1007\/s00271-017-0535-y","article-title":"Commentary: on the water footprint as an indicator of water use in food production.","volume":"35","author":"Fereres","year":"2017","journal-title":"Irrigation Science"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R17","first-page":"384","article-title":"Water footprint of milk production in Andhra Pradesh.","volume":"68","author":"Harika","year":"2015","journal-title":"Indian Journal of Dairy Science"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.2527\/af.2012-0038","article-title":"The hidden water resource use behind meat and dairy.","volume":"2","author":"Hoekstra","year":"2012","journal-title":"Animal Frontiers"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2016.02.026","article-title":"A critique on the water-scarcity weighted water footprint in LCA.","volume":"66","author":"Hoekstra","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ecological Indicators"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R20","first-page":"166.","article-title":"Virtual water trade. A quantification of virtual water flows between nations in relation to international crop trade.","volume":"11","author":"Hoekstra","year":"2002","journal-title":"Value of Water Research Report Series"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R21"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R22"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2014.05.043","article-title":"Water availability footprint of milk and milk products from large-scale dairy production systems in northeast China.","volume":"79","author":"Huang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Cleaner Production"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2017.02.022","article-title":"Water, land and carbon footprints of sheep and chicken meat produced in Tunisia under different farming systems.","volume":"77","author":"Ibidhi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecological Indicators"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R25"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wri.2016.12.002","article-title":"Estimation of green water footprint of animal feed for beef cattle production in southern Great Plains.","volume":"17","author":"Kannan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Water Resources and Industry"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2793","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2010.0149","article-title":"Food consumption trends and drivers.","volume":"365","author":"Kearney","year":"2010","journal-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.5194\/soil-2-111-2016","article-title":"The significance of soils and soil science towards realization of the United Nations sustainable development goals.","volume":"2","author":"Keesstra","year":"2016","journal-title":"Soil"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2001","DOI":"10.2527\/jas2017.1439","article-title":"Board-invited review: quantifying water use in ruminant production.","volume":"95","author":"Legesse","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Animal Science"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2016.01.022","article-title":"Water footprint of crop productions: a review.","volume":"548\u2013549","author":"Lovarelli","year":"2016","journal-title":"The Science of the Total Environment"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R31"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R32"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1007\/s10021-011-9517-8","article-title":"A global assessment of the water footprint of farm animal products.","volume":"15","author":"Mekonnen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ecosystems"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2016.07.199","article-title":"Water footprinting of dairy farming in Ireland.","volume":"140","author":"Murphy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Cleaner Production"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2016.01.039","article-title":"Carbon and water footprint of pork supply chain in Catalonia: From feed to final products.","volume":"171","author":"Noya","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Environmental Management"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.3390\/w8080322","article-title":"Water footprint of milk produced and processed in South Africa: implications for policy-makers and stakeholders along the dairy value chain.","volume":"8","author":"Owusu-Sekyere","year":"2016","journal-title":"Water"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2017.07.041","article-title":"Evaluation of water footprint and economic water productivities of dairy products of South Africa.","volume":"83","author":"Owusu-Sekyere","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecological Indicators"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolecon.2016.12.020","article-title":"Economic water productivities along the dairy value chain in South Africa: implications for sustainable and economically efficient water-use policies in the dairy industry.","volume":"134","author":"Owusu-Sekyere","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecological Economics"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2015.01.035","article-title":"Water footprint accounting and scarcity indicators of conventional and organic dairy production systems.","volume":"93","author":"Palhares","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Cleaner Production"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agsy.2017.04.009","article-title":"Impact of roughage-concentrate ratio on the water footprints of beef feedlots.","volume":"155","author":"Palhares","year":"2017","journal-title":"Agricultural Systems"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2013.12.004","article-title":"Water footprints: path to enlightenment, or false trail?","volume":"134","author":"Perry","year":"2014","journal-title":"Agricultural Water Management"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.livsci.2016.02.012","article-title":"Assessing water resource use in livestock production: a review of methods.","volume":"187","author":"Ran","year":"2016","journal-title":"Livestock Science"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.04.176","article-title":"From ISO14046 to water footprint labeling: a case study of indicators applied to milk production in south-eastern Australia.","volume":"599\u2013600","author":"Ridoutt","year":"2017","journal-title":"The Science of the Total Environment"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloenvcha.2009.08.003","article-title":"A revised approach to water footprinting to make transparent the impacts of consumption and production on global freshwater scarcity.","volume":"20","author":"Ridoutt","year":"2010","journal-title":"Global Environmental Change"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5114","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2010-3546","article-title":"Short communication: the water footprint of dairy products: case study involving skim milk powder.","volume":"93","author":"Ridoutt","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Dairy Science"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2443","DOI":"10.3390\/su3122443","article-title":"Comparing carbon and water footprints for beef cattle production in southern Australia.","volume":"3","author":"Ridoutt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2011.10.027","article-title":"Meat consumption and water scarcity: beware of generalizations.","volume":"28","author":"Ridoutt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Cleaner Production"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2013.08.012","article-title":"Carbon, water and land use footprints of beef cattle production systems in southern Australia.","volume":"73","author":"Ridoutt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Cleaner Production"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agwat.2005.07.001","article-title":"Water scarcity: fact or fiction?","volume":"80","author":"Rijsberman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Agricultural Water Management"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0099705","article-title":"The added value of water footprint assessment for national water policy: a case study for Morocco.","volume":"9","author":"Schyns","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S334","DOI":"10.1002\/ird.531","article-title":"Water productivity through dual purpose (milk and meat) herds in the Tadla irrigation scheme, Morocco.","volume":"58","author":"Sra\u00efri","year":"2009","journal-title":"Irrigation and Drainage"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1017\/S1751731115002360","article-title":"Biophysical and economic water productivity of dual-purpose cattle farming.","volume":"10","author":"Sra\u00efri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Animal"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agsy.2014.05.002","article-title":"Comparison of water use in global milk production for different typical farms.","volume":"129","author":"Sultana","year":"2014","journal-title":"Agricultural Systems"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gfs.2014.08.006","article-title":"Benchmarking consumptive water use of bovine milk production systems for 60 geographical regions: an implication for global food security.","volume":"4","author":"Sultana","year":"2015","journal-title":"Global Food Security"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agsy.2016.07.011","article-title":"A simulation-based approach for evaluating the effects of farm type, management, and rainfall on the water footprint of sheep grazing systems in a semi-arid environment.","volume":"148","author":"Toro-Mujica","year":"2016","journal-title":"Agricultural Systems"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2012.10.021","article-title":"A review on the indicator water footprint for the EU28.","volume":"26","author":"Vanham","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ecological Indicators"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2014.12.013","article-title":"Virtual water and water footprints do not provide helpful insight regarding international trade or water scarcity.","volume":"52","author":"Wichelns","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ecological Indicators"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R58"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2015.01.073","article-title":"Environmental impacts and resource use of Australian beef and lamb exported to the USA determined using life cycle assessment.","volume":"94","author":"Wiedemann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Cleaner Production"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2016.06.086","article-title":"Resource use and environmental impacts from Australian chicken meat production.","volume":"140","author":"Wiedemann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Cleaner Production"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wri.2013.06.004","article-title":"Water footprint assessment (WFA) for better water governance and sustainable development.","volume":"1\u20132","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Water Resources and Industry"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.agsy.2012.03.006","article-title":"Water footprinting: a comparison of methods using New Zealand dairy farming as a case study.","volume":"110","author":"Zonderland-Thomassen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Agricultural Systems"},{"key":"2025122718474384600_R63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2013.12.025","article-title":"Water footprint of beef cattle and sheep produced in New Zealand: water scarcity and eutrophication impacts.","volume":"73","author":"Zonderland-Thomassen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Cleaner Production"}],"container-title":["Animal Production Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/connectsci.au\/an\/article-pdf\/60\/11\/1369\/123340\/an17705.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/connectsci.au\/an\/article-pdf\/60\/11\/1369\/123340\/an17705.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,27]],"date-time":"2025-12-27T23:47:51Z","timestamp":1766879271000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/connectsci.au\/an\/article\/60\/11\/1369\/17728\/Water-footprint-of-livestock-products-and"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,19]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,14]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1071\/an17705","relation":{},"ISSN":["1836-0939","1836-5787"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1836-0939","type":"print"},{"value":"1836-5787","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,19]]}}}