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Here we addressed these questions by leveraging the power of an experimental system that consisted of 10 social groups of female macaques, in which each individual's social status (i.e., dominance rank) could be experimentally controlled. Using this paradigm, we show that dominance rank results in a widespread, yet plastic, imprint on gene regulation, such that peripheral blood mononuclear cell gene expression data alone predict social status with 80% accuracy. We investigated the mechanistic basis of these effects using cell type-specific gene expression profiling and glucocorticoid resistance assays, which together contributed to rank effects on gene expression levels for 694 (70%) of the 987 rank-related genes. We also explored the possible contribution of DNA methylation levels to these effects, and identified global associations between dominance rank and methylation profiles that suggest epigenetic flexibility in response to status-related behavioral cues. Together, these results illuminate the importance of the molecular response to social conditions, particularly in the immune system, and demonstrate a key role for gene regulation in linking the social environment to individual physiology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1202734109","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2012,4,9]],"date-time":"2012-04-09T21:05:20Z","timestamp":1334005520000},"page":"6490-6495","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":250,"title":["Social environment is associated with gene regulatory variation in the rhesus macaque immune system"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"109","author":[{"given":"Jenny","family":"Tung","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Genetics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Luis B.","family":"Barreiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Genetics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zachary P.","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kasper D.","family":"Hansen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21202; and"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Vasiliki","family":"Michopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Donna","family":"Toufexis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322;"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Katelyn","family":"Michelini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Genetics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mark E.","family":"Wilson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yoav","family":"Gilad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Genetics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637;"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2012,4,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1097\/00006842-199705000-00001","article-title":"Chronic social stress, social status, and susceptibility to upper respiratory infections in nonhuman primates","volume":"59","author":"Cohen S","year":"1997","unstructured":"S Cohen, et al., Chronic social stress, social status, and susceptibility to upper respiratory infections in nonhuman primates. 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