{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,25]],"date-time":"2026-07-25T01:31:34Z","timestamp":1784943094748,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","issue":"27","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,19]],"date-time":"2018-12-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1545177600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":183,"URL":"http:\/\/www.pnas.org\/site\/aboutpnas\/licenses.xhtml"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Significance<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>We present the Facebook Gender Divide, an inexpensive, real-time instrument for measuring gender differences in Facebook access and activity in 217 countries. The Facebook Gender Divide captures standard indicators of Internet penetration and gender equality indices in education, health, and economic opportunity. We find that the tendency of countries to approach economic gender equality is negatively associated with a high Facebook Gender Divide. Our results suggest that online social networks, while suffering gender imbalance, may lower information access barriers for women and narrow the economic gender gap.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1717781115","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,19]],"date-time":"2018-06-19T14:55:31Z","timestamp":1529420131000},"page":"6958-6963","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":61,"title":["Analyzing gender inequality through large-scale Facebook advertising data"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"115","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2820-9151","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Garcia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Complexity Science Hub Vienna, 1080 Vienna, Austria;"},{"name":"Section for Science of Complex Systems, Center for Medical Statistics, Informatics, and Intelligent Systems, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yonas","family":"Mitike Kassa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IMDEA Networks Institute, 28918 Legan\u00e9s, Spain;"},{"name":"Department of Telematic Engineering, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, 28911 Legan\u00e9s, Spain;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angel","family":"Cuevas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Telematic Engineering, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, 28911 Legan\u00e9s, Spain;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manuel","family":"Cebrian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Data61, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, 3008 Melbourne, Australia;"},{"name":"The Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Esteban","family":"Moro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139;"},{"name":"Grupo Interdisciplinar de Sistemas Complejos, Department of Mathematics, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, 28911 Leganes, Spain;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1796-4303","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iyad","family":"Rahwan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139;"},{"name":"Institute for Data, Systems &amp; Society, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruben","family":"Cuevas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Telematic Engineering, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, 28911 Legan\u00e9s, Spain;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican1210-80","article-title":"Long live the web","volume":"303","author":"Berners-Lee T","year":"2010","unstructured":"T Berners-Lee, Long live the web. Sci Am 303, 80\u201385 (2010).","journal-title":"Sci Am"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_2","first-page":"129","volume-title":"Digital Inequality","author":"Hargittai E","year":"2013","unstructured":"E Hargittai, YP Hsieh Digital Inequality, ed W Dutton (Oxford Univ Press, Oxford), pp. 129\u2013150 (2013)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_2","volume-title":"Falling Through the Net: A Survey of the \u201cHave Nots\u201d in Rural and Urban America","author":"Brown R","year":"1995","unstructured":"R Brown, D Barram, L Irving Falling Through the Net: A Survey of the \u201cHave Nots\u201d in Rural and Urban America (National Telecommunications and Information Administration, Washington, DC, 1995)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/2419.001.0001","volume-title":"The Digital Divide: Facing a Crisis or Creating a Myth?","author":"Compaine BM","year":"2001","unstructured":"BM Compaine The Digital Divide: Facing a Crisis or Creating a Myth? (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2001)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139164887","volume-title":"Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide","author":"Norris P","year":"2001","unstructured":"P Norris Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide (Cambridge Univ Press, Cambridge, UK, 2001)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_2","volume-title":"60 Resolution 252","author":"United Nations General Assembly","year":"2006","unstructured":"; United Nations General Assembly 60 Resolution 252 (United Nations, Geneva, 2006)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_2","volume-title":"World Development Report 2016: Digital Dividends","author":"World BankGroup","year":"2016","unstructured":"; World BankGroup World Development Report 2016: Digital Dividends (World Bank, Washington, DC, 2016)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1681-4835.2017.tb00578.x","article-title":"The impact of connectivity in Africa: Grand visions and the mirage of inclusive digital development","volume":"79","author":"Friederici N","year":"2017","unstructured":"N Friederici, S Ojanper\u00e4, M Graham, The impact of connectivity in Africa: Grand visions and the mirage of inclusive digital development. Electron J Inf Syst Dev Countries 79, 1\u201320 (2017).","journal-title":"Electron J Inf Syst Dev Countries"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1419","DOI":"10.1145\/2441776.2441936","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2013 Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work","author":"Burke M","year":"2013","unstructured":"M Burke, R Kraut, Using Facebook after losing a job: Differential benefits of strong and weak ties. Proceedings of the 2013 Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (ACM, New York), pp. 1419\u20131430 (2013)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jebo.2016.12.004","article-title":"The paradox of weak ties in 55 countries","volume":"133","author":"Gee LK","year":"2017","unstructured":"LK Gee, JJ Jones, CJ Fariss, M Burke, JH Fowler, The paradox of weak ties in 55 countries. J Econ Behav Organ 133, 362\u2013372 (2017).","journal-title":"J Econ Behav Organ"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1162\/qjec.122.3.879","article-title":"The digital provide: Information (technology), market performance, and welfare in the south Indian fisheries sector","volume":"122","author":"Jensen R","year":"2007","unstructured":"R Jensen, The digital provide: Information (technology), market performance, and welfare in the south Indian fisheries sector. Q J Econ 122, 879\u2013924 (2007).","journal-title":"Q J Econ"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_2","unstructured":"; World Wide Web Foundation The web and rising global inequality. Available at http:\/\/thewebindex.org\/report\/. Accessed May 27 2018. (2015)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-016-0066-4","article-title":"Women through the glass ceiling: Gender asymmetries in wikipedia","volume":"5","author":"Wagner C","year":"2016","unstructured":"C Wagner, E Graells-Garrido, D Garcia, F Menczer, Women through the glass ceiling: Gender asymmetries in wikipedia. EPJ Data Sci 5, 5 (2016).","journal-title":"EPJ Data Sci"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1145\/2835776.2835798","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Ninth ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining","author":"Rizoiu MA","year":"2016","unstructured":"MA Rizoiu, L Xie, T Caetano, M Cebrian, Evolution of privacy loss in Wikipedia. Proceedings of the Ninth ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining (ACM, New York), pp. 215\u2013224 (2016)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_15_2","first-page":"131","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Eighth International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media","author":"Garcia D","year":"2014","unstructured":"D Garcia, I Weber, VRK Garimella, Gender asymmetries in reality and fiction: The Bechdel test of social media. Proceedings of the Eighth International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media (AAAI Press, Palo Alto, CA), pp. 131\u2013140 (2014)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_16_2","first-page":"289","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Tenth International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media","author":"Nilizadeh S","year":"2016","unstructured":"S Nilizadeh, , Twitter\u2019s glass ceiling: The effect of perceived gender on online visibility. Proceedings of the Tenth International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (AAAI Press, Palo Alto, CA), pp. 289\u2013298 (2016)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-13734-6_9","volume-title":"Proceedings of the International Conference on Social Informatics","author":"Magno G","year":"2014","unstructured":"G Magno, I Weber, International gender differences and gaps in online social networks. Proceedings of the International Conference on Social Informatics (Springer, Cham, Switzerland), pp. 121\u2013138 (2014)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K Haranko E Zagheni K Garimella I Weber Professional gender gaps across us cities. arXiv1801.09429. (2018).","DOI":"10.1609\/icwsm.v12i1.15064"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"FC Billari E Zagheni Big data and population processes: A revolution? Statistics and Data Science: New Challenges New Generations . Proceedings of the Conference of the Italian Statistical Society (SIS) (Firenze Univ Press Firenze Italy) pp 167\u2013178. (2017).","DOI":"10.31235\/osf.io\/f9vzp"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2018.03.007","article-title":"Using Facebook ad data to track the global digital gender gap","volume":"107","author":"Fatehkia M","year":"2018","unstructured":"M Fatehkia, R Kashyap, I Weber, Using Facebook ad data to track the global digital gender gap. World Dev 107, 189\u2013209 (2018).","journal-title":"World Dev"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_21_2","first-page":"640","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Eleventh International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media","author":"Ojala J","year":"2017","unstructured":"J Ojala, E Zagheni, FC Billari, I Weber, Fertility and its meaning: Evidence from search behavior. Proceedings of the Eleventh International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (AAAI Press, Palo Alto, CA), pp. 640\u2013643 (2017)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3799","DOI":"10.1145\/3025453.3025903","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems","author":"Gonz\u00e1lez Caba\u00f1as J","year":"2017","unstructured":"J Gonz\u00e1lez Caba\u00f1as, \u00c1 Cuevas, R Cuevas, FDVT: Data valuation tool for Facebook users. Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (ACM, New York), pp. 3799\u20133809 (2017)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1177\/0894439316666262","article-title":"Migrant sampling using facebook advertisements: A case study of polish migrants in four european countries","volume":"35","author":"P\u00f6tzschke S","year":"2017","unstructured":"S P\u00f6tzschke, M Braun, Migrant sampling using facebook advertisements: A case study of polish migrants in four european countries. Soc Sci Comput Rev 35, 633\u2013653 (2017).","journal-title":"Soc Sci Comput Rev"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1111\/padr.12102","article-title":"Leveraging Facebook\u2019s advertising platform to monitor stocks of migrants","volume":"43","author":"Zagheni E","year":"2017","unstructured":"E Zagheni, I Weber, K Gummadi, Leveraging Facebook\u2019s advertising platform to monitor stocks of migrants. Popul Dev Rev 43, 721\u2013734 (2017).","journal-title":"Popul Dev Rev"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Dubois E Zagheni K Garimella I Weber Studying migrant assimilation through facebook interests. arXiv 1801.09430. (2018).","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-01159-8_5"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_26_2","unstructured":"; World Economic Forum World economic forum gender gap report. Available at reports.weforum.org\/global-gender-gap-report-2016. Accessed May 27 2018. (2016)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_27_2","first-page":"424","article-title":"Network externalities, competition, and compatibility","volume":"75","author":"Katz ML","year":"1985","unstructured":"ML Katz, C Shapiro, Network externalities, competition, and compatibility. Am Econ Rev 75, 424\u2013440 (1985).","journal-title":"Am Econ Rev"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.websem.2007.11.008","article-title":"Metcalfe\u2019s law, web 2.0, and the semantic web","volume":"6","author":"Hendler J","year":"2008","unstructured":"J Hendler, J Golbeck, Metcalfe\u2019s law, web 2.0, and the semantic web. Web Semant Sci Serv Agents World Wide Web 6, 14\u201320 (2008).","journal-title":"Web Semant Sci Serv Agents World Wide Web"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_29_2","volume-title":"Cultures and Organizations: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations","author":"Hofstede G","year":"2003","unstructured":"G Hofstede Cultures and Organizations: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations (Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, 2003)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_30_2","unstructured":"D Ingram Factbox: Who is Cambridge Analytica and what did it do? Available at https:\/\/reut.rs\/2GGNb8F. Acccessed April 23 2018. (2018)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_31_2","unstructured":"JG Caba\u00f1s A Cuevas R Cuevas Facebook use of sensitive data for advertising in europe. arXiv 1802.05030. (2018)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1701172","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1701172","article-title":"Leaking privacy and shadow profiles in online social networks","volume":"3","author":"Garcia D","year":"2017","unstructured":"D Garcia, Leaking privacy and shadow profiles in online social networks. Sci Adv 3, e1701172 (2017).","journal-title":"Sci Adv"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1140\/epjds\/s13688-018-0130-3","article-title":"Collective aspects of privacy in the twitter social network","volume":"7","author":"Garcia D","year":"2018","unstructured":"D Garcia, M Goel, AK Agrawal, P Kumaraguru, Collective aspects of privacy in the twitter social network. EPJ Data Sci 7, 3 (2018).","journal-title":"EPJ Data Sci"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e97856","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0097856","article-title":"The dynamics of democracy, development and cultural values","volume":"9","author":"Spaiser V","year":"2014","unstructured":"V Spaiser, S Ranganathan, RP Mann, DJ Sumpter, The dynamics of democracy, development and cultural values. PloS One 9, e97856 (2014).","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_35_2","volume-title":"World Development Report","author":"Uteng T","year":"2012","unstructured":"T Uteng, Gender and mobility in the developing world. World Development Report (World Bank, Washington, DC, 2012)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_36_2","unstructured":"; Facebook Facebook ads API. Available at https:\/\/developers.facebook.com\/docs\/graph-api. Accessed May 27 2018. (2018)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205395171665021","DOI":"10.1177\/2053951716650211","article-title":"Where are human subjects in big data research? the emerging ethics divide","volume":"3","author":"Metcalf J","year":"2016","unstructured":"J Metcalf, K Crawford, Where are human subjects in big data research? the emerging ethics divide. Big Data Soc 3, 2053951716650211 (2016).","journal-title":"Big Data Soc"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.4018\/978-1-59140-152-0.ch002","volume-title":"Readings in Virtual Research Ethics: Issues and Controversies","author":"Ess C","year":"2004","unstructured":"C Ess, S Jones, Ethical decision-making and Internet research: Recommendations from the aoir ethics working committee. Readings in Virtual Research Ethics: Issues and Controversies (IGI Global, Hershey, PA), pp. 27\u201344 (2004)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1145\/3091478.3091513","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2017 ACM on Web Science Conference","author":"Ara\u00fajo M","year":"2017","unstructured":"M Ara\u00fajo, Y Mejova, I Weber, F Benevenuto, Using Facebook ads audiences for global lifestyle disease surveillance: Promises and limitations. Proceedings of the 2017 ACM on Web Science Conference (ACM, New York), pp. 253\u2013257 (2017)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_40_2","unstructured":"; World Bank World Bank human developent index. Available at hdr.undp.org\/en\/content\/human-development-index-hdi. Accessed October 10 2017. (2016)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_41_2","volume-title":"Regression Analysis by Example","author":"Chatterjee S","year":"2015","unstructured":"S Chatterjee, AS Hadi Regression Analysis by Example (John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2015)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_42_2","unstructured":"M Plummer JAGS: A program for analysis of Bayesian graphical models using gibbs sampling. Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop on Distributed Statistical Computing (DSC 2003) eds Hornik K Leisch F Zeileis A. Available at https:\/\/www.r-project.org\/conferences\/DSC-2003\/Proceedings\/Plummer.pdf. Accessed June 1 2018. (2003)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2504","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csda.2011.02.014","article-title":"Sharpening wald-type inference in robust regression for small samples","volume":"55","author":"Koller M","year":"2011","unstructured":"M Koller, WA Stahel, Sharpening wald-type inference in robust regression for small samples. Comput Stat Data Anal 55, 2504\u20132515 (2011).","journal-title":"Comput Stat Data Anal"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_44_2","volume-title":"Univariate Tests for Time Series Models","author":"Cromwell JB","year":"1994","unstructured":"JB Cromwell, WC Labys, M Terraza Univariate Tests for Time Series Models (Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA) Vol 99 (1994)."}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/www.pnas.org\/syndication\/doi\/10.1073\/pnas.1717781115","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1073\/pnas.1717781115","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,3]],"date-time":"2023-09-03T03:37:28Z","timestamp":1693712248000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/full\/10.1073\/pnas.1717781115"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,19]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"27","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,3]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1073\/pnas.1717781115"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1717781115","relation":{},"ISSN":["0027-8424","1091-6490"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0027-8424","type":"print"},{"value":"1091-6490","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,19]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2018-06-19","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}