{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,7]],"date-time":"2026-04-07T16:17:08Z","timestamp":1775578628403,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","issue":"16","content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1997,8,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n            Approximately 250,000 measurements made for the pCO\n            <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n            difference between surface water and the marine atmosphere,\n \u0394pCO\n            <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n            , have been assembled for the global oceans.\n Observations made in the equatorial Pacific during El Nino events have\n been excluded from the data set. These observations are mapped on the\n global 4\u00b0 \u00d7 5\u00b0 grid for a single virtual calendar year (chosen\n arbitrarily to be 1990) representing a non-El Nino year. Monthly global\n distributions of \u0394pCO\n            <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n            have been constructed using an\n interpolation method based on a lateral advection\u2013diffusion transport\n equation. The net flux of CO\n            <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n            across the sea surface has\n been computed using \u0394pCO\n            <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n            distributions and\n CO\n            <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n            gas transfer coefficients across sea surface. The\n annual net uptake flux of CO\n            <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n            by the global oceans thus\n estimated ranges from 0.60 to 1.34 Gt-C\u22c5yr\n            <jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>\n            depending on different formulations used for wind speed dependence on\n the gas transfer coefficient. These estimates are subject to an error\n of up to 75% resulting from the numerical interpolation method used to\n estimate the distribution of \u0394pCO\n            <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n            over the global\n oceans. Temperate and polar oceans of the both hemispheres are the\n major sinks for atmospheric CO\n            <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n            , whereas the equatorial\n oceans are the major sources for CO\n            <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n            . The Atlantic Ocean is\n the most important CO\n            <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n            sink, providing about 60% of the\n global ocean uptake, while the Pacific Ocean is neutral because of its\n equatorial source flux being balanced by the sink flux of the temperate\n oceans. The Indian and Southern Oceans take up about 20% each.\n          <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.94.16.8292","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2002,7,26]],"date-time":"2002-07-26T14:31:44Z","timestamp":1027693904000},"page":"8292-8299","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":415,"title":["Global air-sea flux of CO\n            <sub>2<\/sub>\n            : An estimate based on measurements of sea\u2013air pCO\n            <sub>2<\/sub>\n            \u2009difference"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"94","author":[{"given":"Taro","family":"Takahashi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Lamont\u2013Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University,\r Palisades, NY 10964; Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory,\r National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, WA 98115;\r Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California\r at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093; Atlantic Oceanographic and\r Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric\r Administration, Miami, FL 33149; and Ames Research Center,\r National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Moffett Field, CA 94035"}]},{"given":"Richard A.","family":"Feely","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lamont\u2013Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University,\r Palisades, NY 10964; Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory,\r National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, WA 98115;\r Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California\r at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093; Atlantic Oceanographic and\r Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric\r Administration, Miami, FL 33149; and Ames Research Center,\r National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Moffett Field, CA 94035"}]},{"given":"Ray F.","family":"Weiss","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lamont\u2013Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University,\r Palisades, NY 10964; Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory,\r National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, WA 98115;\r Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California\r at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093; Atlantic Oceanographic and\r Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric\r Administration, Miami, FL 33149; and Ames Research Center,\r National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Moffett Field, CA 94035"}]},{"given":"Rik H.","family":"Wanninkhof","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lamont\u2013Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University,\r Palisades, NY 10964; Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory,\r National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, WA 98115;\r Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California\r at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093; Atlantic Oceanographic and\r Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric\r Administration, Miami, FL 33149; and Ames Research Center,\r National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Moffett Field, CA 94035"}]},{"given":"David W.","family":"Chipman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lamont\u2013Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University,\r Palisades, NY 10964; Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory,\r National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, WA 98115;\r Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California\r at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093; Atlantic Oceanographic and\r Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric\r Administration, Miami, FL 33149; and Ames Research Center,\r National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Moffett Field, CA 94035"}]},{"given":"Stewart C.","family":"Sutherland","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lamont\u2013Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University,\r Palisades, NY 10964; Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory,\r National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, WA 98115;\r Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California\r at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093; Atlantic Oceanographic and\r Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric\r Administration, Miami, FL 33149; and Ames Research Center,\r National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Moffett Field, CA 94035"}]},{"given":"Timothy T.","family":"Takahashi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lamont\u2013Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University,\r Palisades, NY 10964; Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory,\r National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, WA 98115;\r Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California\r at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093; Atlantic Oceanographic and\r Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric\r Administration, Miami, FL 33149; and Ames Research Center,\r National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Moffett Field, CA 94035"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[1997,8,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.247.4949.1431"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.256.5053.74"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/365119a0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3402\/tellusa.v27i2.9900"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_2","volume-title":"Tracers in the Sea","author":"Broecker W S","year":"1982","unstructured":"W S Broecker, T-H Peng Tracers in the Sea (Eldigio, Palisades, NY, 1982)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00208905"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/91JC02849"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_2","first-page":"211","volume":"343","author":"Sarmiento J L","year":"1995","unstructured":"J L Sarmiento, R Murnane, C Le Quere Philos Trans R Soc London B 343, 211\u2013219 (1995).","journal-title":"Philos Trans R Soc London B"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/93GB00053"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/376240a0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/356587a0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0967-0637(93)90058-B"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0967-0645(96)00017-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_2","volume-title":"BOFS North Atlantic Data Set (CD-ROM)","year":"1994","unstructured":"BOFS North Atlantic Data Set (CD-ROM) (British Oceanographic Centre, Bidson Observatory, Birkenhead, Merseyside, U.K., 1994)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_2","volume-title":"Investigation of Carbon Dioxide in the South Atlantic and Northern Weddell Sea Areas (WOCE Sections A-12 and A-21) during the Meteor Expedition 11\/5, January\u2013March, 1990","author":"Chipman D W","year":"1992","unstructured":"D W Chipman, T Takahashi, D Breger, S C Sutherland Investigation of Carbon Dioxide in the South Atlantic and Northern Weddell Sea Areas (WOCE Sections A-12 and A-21) during the Meteor Expedition 11\/5, January\u2013March, 1990 (Lamont\u2013Doherty Geological Observatory, Palisades, NY, 1992)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0967-0645(95)00027-N"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3402\/tellusb.v43i1.15242"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-4203(94)90073-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3402\/tellusb.v40i4.15920"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3402\/tellusb.v44i1.15417"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0889.47.issue4.2.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3402\/tellusb.v47i4.16060"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3402\/tellusb.v47i1-2.16006"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/91JC02064"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3334\/CDIAC\/otg.ndp047"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/93JC02501"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_27_2","volume-title":"The Polar Oceans and Their Role in Shaping the Global Environment","author":"Poisson A","year":"1994","unstructured":"A Poisson, N Metzl, X Danet, F Louanchi, C Brunet, B Schauer, B Bres, D Ruiz-Pino The Polar Oceans and Their Role in Shaping the Global Environment, eds O M Johannessen, R D Muench, J E Overland (Am. 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