{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T20:15:05Z","timestamp":1792181705241,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","issue":"45","content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2008,11,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Ocean acidification represents a key threat to coral reefs by reducing the calcification rate of framework builders. In addition, acidification is likely to affect the relationship between corals and their symbiotic dinoflagellates and the productivity of this association. However, little is known about how acidification impacts on the physiology of reef builders and how acidification interacts with warming. Here, we report on an 8-week study that compared bleaching, productivity, and calcification responses of crustose coralline algae (CCA) and branching (\n                    <jats:italic>Acropora<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) and massive (\n                    <jats:italic>Porites<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) coral species in response to acidification and warming. Using a 30-tank experimental system, we manipulated CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    levels to simulate doubling and three- to fourfold increases [Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projection categories IV and VI] relative to present-day levels under cool and warm scenarios. Results indicated that high CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    is a bleaching agent for corals and CCA under high irradiance, acting synergistically with warming to lower thermal bleaching thresholds. We propose that CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    induces bleaching via its impact on photoprotective mechanisms of the photosystems. Overall, acidification impacted more strongly on bleaching and productivity than on calcification. Interestingly, the intermediate, warm CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    scenario led to a 30% increase in productivity in\n                    <jats:italic>Acropora<\/jats:italic>\n                    , whereas high CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    lead to zero productivity in both corals. CCA were most sensitive to acidification, with high CO\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    leading to negative productivity and high rates of net dissolution. Our findings suggest that sensitive reef-building species such as CCA may be pushed beyond their thresholds for growth and survival within the next few decades whereas corals will show delayed and mixed responses.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0804478105","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2008,11,6]],"date-time":"2008-11-06T21:25:48Z","timestamp":1226006748000},"page":"17442-17446","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1040,"title":["Ocean acidification causes bleaching and productivity loss in coral reef builders"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"105","author":[{"given":"K. R. N.","family":"Anthony","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Marine Studies and ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, The University of Queensland, St Lucia 4072 Queensland, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"D. I.","family":"Kline","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Marine Studies and ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, The University of Queensland, St Lucia 4072 Queensland, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"G.","family":"Diaz-Pulido","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Marine Studies and ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, The University of Queensland, St Lucia 4072 Queensland, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"S.","family":"Dove","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Marine Studies and ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, The University of Queensland, St Lucia 4072 Queensland, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"O.","family":"Hoegh-Guldberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Marine Studies and ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, The University of Queensland, St Lucia 4072 Queensland, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2008,11,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1152509"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","first-page":"839","article-title":"Climate change, coral bleaching and the future of the world's coral reefs","volume":"50","author":"Hoegh-Guldberg O","year":"1999","unstructured":"O Hoegh-Guldberg, Climate change, coral bleaching and the future of the world's coral reefs. Mar Freshw Res 50, 839\u2013866 (1999).","journal-title":"Mar Freshw Res"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/425365a"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1097403"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1029\/61CE06","volume-title":"Coral Reefs and Climate Change: Science and Management","author":"Kleypas JA","year":"2006","unstructured":"JA Kleypas, C Langdon, Coral reefs and changing seawater chemistry. Coral Reefs and Climate Change: Science and Management (AGU Monograph Series, Coastal and Estuarine Studies, Am. Geophys. Union, Washington DC) 61, 73\u2013110 (2006)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_2","first-page":"153","volume-title":"Climate Change and the Great Barrier Reef","author":"Diaz-Pulido G","year":"2007","unstructured":"G Diaz-Pulido, et al. Climate Change and the Great Barrier Reef, eds JE Johnson, PA Marshall (Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, The Australian Greenhouse Office, and the Department of Environment Water and Natural Resources, Townsville), pp. 153\u2013192 (2007)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo100"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_2","unstructured":"JA Raven et al. Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide Report to The Royal Society . 2005)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04095"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/35030078"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s005310000125"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2486.2000.00315.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1137094"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/1999GB001195"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3354\/meps229073"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_2","first-page":"63","article-title":"CO2 increase, a direct cause of coral reef mass bleaching?","volume":"12","author":"Pecheux M","year":"2002","unstructured":"M Pecheux, CO2 increase, a direct cause of coral reef mass bleaching? Mar Life 12, 63\u201368 (2002).","journal-title":"Mar Life"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1529-8817.1998.340393.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1376","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2003.48.4.1376","article-title":"Primary productivity of reef-building crustose coralline algae","volume":"48","author":"Chisholm JRM","year":"2003","unstructured":"JRM Chisholm, Primary productivity of reef-building crustose coralline algae. Limnol Oceanogr 48, 1376\u20131387 (2003).","journal-title":"Limnol Oceanogr"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_19_2","first-page":"26","volume-title":"Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report","year":"2007","unstructured":"Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Valencia, Spain), pp. 26\u201373 (2007)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/430741a"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2006.3567"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2486.2003.00678.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2006.51.3.1284"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s003380100160"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1104\/pp.121.4.1247"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M306054200"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/icb\/39.1.160"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_28_2","volume-title":"Experiments in Ecology: Their Logical Design and Interpretation Using Analysis of Variance","author":"Underwood AJ","year":"1997","unstructured":"AJ Underwood Experiments in Ecology: Their Logical Design and Interpretation Using Analysis of Variance (Cambridge Univ Press, Cambridge, UK, 1997)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1104\/pp.107.3.687"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1139\/O07-144"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-0981(95)00202-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1529-8817.2007.00445.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_33_2","first-page":"25","article-title":"Effects of benthic algae on the replenishment of corals and the implications for the resilience of coral reefs","volume":"46","author":"Birrell CL","year":"2008","unstructured":"CL Birrell, LJ McCook, BL Willis, G Diaz-Pulido, Effects of benthic algae on the replenishment of corals and the implications for the resilience of coral reefs. Oceanogr Marine Biol Ann Rev 46, 25\u201364 (2008).","journal-title":"Oceanogr Marine Biol Ann Rev"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2005.50.4.1025"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1097329"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gca.2006.08.017"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-0981(00)00237-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2486.2006.01249.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.284.5411.118"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-4203(02)00133-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_41_2","unstructured":"E Lewis DWR Wallace Program developed for CO 2 system calculations ORNL\/CDIAC-105. 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