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The fine control of sniffing depends on positioning the soft palate, which is innervated by multiple cranial nerves. This innervation pattern led us to hypothesize that sniffing may remain conserved following severe injury. To test this, we developed a device that measures nasal pressure and converts it into electrical signals. The device enabled sniffs to control an actuator with speed similar to that of a hand using a mouse or joystick. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of device usage revealed a widely distributed neural network, allowing for increased conservation following injury. Also, device usage shared neural substrates with language production, rendering sniffs a promising bypass mode of communication. Indeed, sniffing allowed completely paralyzed locked-in participants to write text and quadriplegic participants to write text and drive an electric wheelchair. We conclude that redirection of sniff motor programs toward alternative functions allows sniffing to provide a control interface that is fast, accurate, robust, and highly conserved following severe injury.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1006746107","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,7,26]],"date-time":"2010-07-26T23:41:37Z","timestamp":1280187697000},"page":"14413-14418","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":55,"title":["Sniffing enables communication and environmental control for the severely disabled"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"107","author":[{"given":"Anton","family":"Plotkin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurobiology, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lee","family":"Sela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurobiology, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aharon","family":"Weissbrod","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurobiology, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roni","family":"Kahana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurobiology, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lior","family":"Haviv","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurobiology, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yaara","family":"Yeshurun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurobiology, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nachum","family":"Soroker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Loewenstein Rehabilitation Hospital, Raanana 43100, Israel; and"},{"name":"The Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 69978, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Noam","family":"Sobel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurobiology, The Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,7,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.med.60.071207.140903"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/446369a"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-9993(95)80031-X"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_2","volume-title":"Diagnoses of Stupor and Coma","author":"Plum F","year":"1966","unstructured":"F Plum, JB Posner Diagnoses of Stupor and Coma (F.A. 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