{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T06:51:11Z","timestamp":1792047071151,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","issue":"9","content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2012,2,28]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Antigenic variation enables pathogens to avoid the host immune response by continual switching of surface proteins. The protozoan blood parasite\n                    <jats:italic>Trypanosoma brucei<\/jats:italic>\n                    causes human African trypanosomiasis (\u201csleeping sickness\u201d) across sub-Saharan Africa and is a model system for antigenic variation, surviving by periodically replacing a monolayer of variant surface glycoproteins (VSG) that covers its cell surface. We compared the genome of\n                    <jats:italic>Trypanosoma brucei<\/jats:italic>\n                    with two closely related parasites\n                    <jats:italic>Trypanosoma congolense<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>Trypanosoma vivax<\/jats:italic>\n                    , to reveal how the variant antigen repertoire has evolved and how it might affect contemporary antigenic diversity. We reconstruct\n                    <jats:italic>VSG<\/jats:italic>\n                    diversification showing that\n                    <jats:italic>Trypanosoma congolense<\/jats:italic>\n                    uses variant antigens derived from multiple ancestral\n                    <jats:italic>VSG<\/jats:italic>\n                    lineages, whereas in\n                    <jats:italic>Trypanosoma brucei VSG<\/jats:italic>\n                    have recent origins, and ancestral gene lineages have been repeatedly co-opted to novel functions. These historical differences are reflected in fundamental differences between species in the scale and mechanism of recombination. Using phylogenetic incompatibility as a metric for genetic exchange, we show that the frequency of recombination is comparable between\n                    <jats:italic>Trypanosoma congolense<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>Trypanosoma brucei<\/jats:italic>\n                    but is much lower in\n                    <jats:italic>Trypanosoma vivax<\/jats:italic>\n                    . Furthermore, in showing that the C-terminal domain of\n                    <jats:italic>Trypanosoma brucei VSG<\/jats:italic>\n                    plays a crucial role in facilitating exchange, we reveal substantial species differences in the mechanism of\n                    <jats:italic>VSG<\/jats:italic>\n                    diversification. Our results demonstrate how past\n                    <jats:italic>VSG<\/jats:italic>\n                    evolution indirectly determines the ability of contemporary parasites to generate novel variant antigens through recombination and suggest that the current model for antigenic variation in\n                    <jats:italic>Trypanosoma brucei<\/jats:italic>\n                    is only one means by which these parasites maintain chronic infections.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1117313109","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2012,2,14]],"date-time":"2012-02-14T00:11:40Z","timestamp":1329178300000},"page":"3416-3421","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":149,"title":["Antigenic diversity is generated by distinct evolutionary mechanisms in African trypanosome species"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"109","author":[{"given":"Andrew P.","family":"Jackson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrew","family":"Berry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Aslett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Harriet C.","family":"Allison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Burton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary, and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jana","family":"Vavrova-Anderson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary, and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, School of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YQ, United Kingdom; and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hilary","family":"Browne","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicola","family":"Corton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Heidi","family":"Hauser","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John","family":"Gamble","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruth","family":"Gilderthorp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lucio","family":"Marcello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary, and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jacqueline","family":"McQuillan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas D.","family":"Otto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael A.","family":"Quail","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mandy J.","family":"Sanders","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andries","family":"van Tonder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael L.","family":"Ginger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, School of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YQ, United Kingdom; and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark C.","family":"Field","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QP, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J. 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Cell 29, 291\u2013303 (1982).","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2005.08.016","article-title":"Regulation of antigen gene expression in Trypanosoma brucei","volume":"21","author":"Pays E","year":"2005","unstructured":"E Pays, Regulation of antigen gene expression in Trypanosoma brucei. Trends Parasitol 21, 517\u2013520 (2005).","journal-title":"Trends Parasitol"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1724","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-5822.2009.01383.x","article-title":"Antigenic variation in the African trypanosome: Molecular mechanisms and phenotypic complexity","volume":"11","author":"Morrison LJ","year":"2009","unstructured":"LJ Morrison, L Marcello, R McCulloch, Antigenic variation in the African trypanosome: Molecular mechanisms and phenotypic complexity. 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