{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,12]],"date-time":"2026-11-12T22:27:43Z","timestamp":1794522463489,"version":"4.9.1"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","issue":"41","content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2012,10,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Nerve myelination facilitates saltatory action potential conduction and exhibits spatiotemporal variation during development associated with the acquisition of behavioral and cognitive maturity. Although human cognitive development is unique, it is not known whether the ontogenetic progression of myelination in the human neocortex is evolutionarily exceptional. In this study, we quantified myelinated axon fiber length density and the expression of myelin-related proteins throughout postnatal life in the somatosensory (areas 3b\/3a\/1\/2), motor (area 4), frontopolar (prefrontal area 10), and visual (areas 17\/18) neocortex of chimpanzees (\n                    <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 20) and humans (\n                    <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 33). Our examination revealed that neocortical myelination is developmentally protracted in humans compared with chimpanzees. In chimpanzees, the density of myelinated axons increased steadily until adult-like levels were achieved at approximately the time of sexual maturity. In contrast, humans displayed slower myelination during childhood, characterized by a delayed period of maturation that extended beyond late adolescence. This comparative research contributes evidence crucial to understanding the evolution of human cognition and behavior, which arises from the unfolding of nervous system development within the context of an enriched cultural environment. Perturbations of normal developmental processes and the decreased expression of myelin-related molecules have been related to psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. Thus, these species differences suggest that the human-specific shift in the timing of cortical maturation during adolescence may have implications for vulnerability to certain psychiatric disorders.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1117943109","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2012,9,25]],"date-time":"2012-09-25T06:48:49Z","timestamp":1348555729000},"page":"16480-16485","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":627,"title":["Prolonged myelination in human neocortical evolution"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"109","author":[{"given":"Daniel J.","family":"Miller","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tetyana","family":"Duka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cheryl D.","family":"Stimpson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steven J.","family":"Schapiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, TX 78602;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wallace B.","family":"Baze","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, TX 78602;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark J.","family":"McArthur","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, TX 78602;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Archibald J.","family":"Fobbs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Museum of Health and Medicine, SIlver Spring, MD 20910;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andr\u00e9 M. M.","family":"Sousa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurobiology and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510;"},{"name":"Graduate Program in Areas of Basic and Applied Biology, Abel Salazar Biomedical Sciences Institute, University of Porto, Porto 4099-002, Portugal;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nenad","family":"\u0160estan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurobiology and Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Derek E.","family":"Wildman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Leonard","family":"Lipovich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI 48201;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher W.","family":"Kuzawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Patrick R.","family":"Hof","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fishberg Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029; and"},{"name":"New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology, New York, NY"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chet C.","family":"Sherwood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2012,9,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajp.20012"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0900544106"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1096-9861(19971020)387:2<167::AID-CNE1>3.0.CO;2-Z"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1105108108"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_2","volume-title":"Sequence of Myelinization in the Brain of Macaca mulatta","author":"Gibson KR","year":"1970","unstructured":"KR Gibson Sequence of Myelinization in the Brain of Macaca mulatta (University of California, Berkeley, 1970)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_2","first-page":"3","volume-title":"Regional Development of the Brain in Early Life","author":"Yakovlev PI","year":"1967","unstructured":"PI Yakovlev, A Lecours, The myelogenetic cycles of regional maturation of the brain. 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