{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T03:21:46Z","timestamp":1791343306461,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","issue":"17","content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2013,4,23]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Wild-living chimpanzees and gorillas harbor a multitude of\n                    <jats:italic>Plasmodium<\/jats:italic>\n                    species, including six of the subgenus\n                    <jats:italic>Laverania<\/jats:italic>\n                    , one of which served as the progenitor of\n                    <jats:italic>Plasmodium falciparum<\/jats:italic>\n                    . Despite the magnitude of this reservoir, it is unknown whether apes represent a source of human infections. Here, we used\n                    <jats:italic>Plasmodium<\/jats:italic>\n                    species-specific PCR, single-genome amplification, and 454 sequencing to screen humans from remote areas of southern Cameroon for ape\n                    <jats:italic>Laverania<\/jats:italic>\n                    infections. Among 1,402 blood samples, we found 1,000 to be\n                    <jats:italic>Plasmodium<\/jats:italic>\n                    mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) positive, all of which contained human parasites as determined by sequencing and\/or restriction enzyme digestion. To exclude low-abundance infections, we subjected 514 of these samples to 454 sequencing, targeting a region of the mtDNA genome that distinguishes ape from human\n                    <jats:italic>Laverania<\/jats:italic>\n                    species. Using algorithms specifically developed to differentiate rare\n                    <jats:italic>Plasmodium<\/jats:italic>\n                    variants from 454-sequencing error, we identified single and mixed-species infections with\n                    <jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic>Plasmodium malariae<\/jats:italic>\n                    , and\/or\n                    <jats:italic>Plasmodium ovale<\/jats:italic>\n                    . However, none of the human samples contained ape\n                    <jats:italic>Laverania<\/jats:italic>\n                    parasites, including the gorilla precursor of\n                    <jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>\n                    . To characterize further the diversity of\n                    <jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>\n                    in Cameroon, we used single-genome amplification to amplify 3.4-kb mtDNA fragments from 229 infected humans. Phylogenetic analysis identified 62 new variants, all of which clustered with extant\n                    <jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>\n                    , providing further evidence that\n                    <jats:italic>P. falciparum<\/jats:italic>\n                    emerged following a single gorilla-to-human transmission. Thus, unlike\n                    <jats:italic>Plasmodium knowlesi<\/jats:italic>\n                    -infected macaques in southeast Asia, African apes harboring\n                    <jats:italic>Laverania<\/jats:italic>\n                    parasites do not seem to serve as a recurrent source of human malaria, a finding of import to ongoing control and eradication measures.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1305201110","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,4,8]],"date-time":"2013-04-08T21:18:31Z","timestamp":1365455911000},"page":"7020-7025","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":65,"title":["<i>Plasmodium falciparum<\/i>\n                    -like parasites infecting wild apes in southern Cameroon do not represent a recurrent source of human malaria"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"110","author":[{"given":"Sesh A.","family":"Sundararaman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of aMedicine and"},{"name":"Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Weimin","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of aMedicine and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brandon F.","family":"Keele","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Science Applications International Corporation\u2013Frederick, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gerald H.","family":"Learn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of aMedicine and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kyle","family":"Bittinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fatima","family":"Mouacha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit\u00e9 Mixte Internationale 233, Institut de Recherche pour le D\u00e9veloppement and University of Montpellier 1, 34394 Montpellier, France;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steve","family":"Ahuka-Mundeke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit\u00e9 Mixte Internationale 233, Institut de Recherche pour le D\u00e9veloppement and University of Montpellier 1, 34394 Montpellier, France;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Magnus","family":"Manske","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sanger Institute Malaria Programme, The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Scott","family":"Sherrill-Mix","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yingying","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of aMedicine and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jordan A.","family":"Malenke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of aMedicine and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eric","family":"Delaporte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit\u00e9 Mixte Internationale 233, Institut de Recherche pour le D\u00e9veloppement and University of Montpellier 1, 34394 Montpellier, France;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Laurent","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit\u00e9 Mixte Internationale 233, Institut de Recherche pour le D\u00e9veloppement and University of Montpellier 1, 34394 Montpellier, France;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eitel","family":"Mpoudi Ngole","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre de Recherches pour les Maladies Emergents et R\u00e9-\u00e9mergents and Institut de Recherches M\u00e9dicales et d'Etudes des Plantes M\u00e9dicinales, BP 906, Yaound\u00e9, Cameroon; and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dominic P.","family":"Kwiatkowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sanger Institute Malaria Programme, The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George M.","family":"Shaw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of aMedicine and"},{"name":"Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julian C.","family":"Rayner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sanger Institute Malaria Programme, The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SA, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martine","family":"Peeters","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit\u00e9 Mixte Internationale 233, Institut de Recherche pour le D\u00e9veloppement and University of Montpellier 1, 34394 Montpellier, France;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paul M.","family":"Sharp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JT, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Frederic D.","family":"Bushman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Beatrice H.","family":"Hahn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of aMedicine and"},{"name":"Microbiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,4,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_1_2","unstructured":"; 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PLoS Med 8(1):e1000399.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1000399"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09442","article-title":"Origin of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum in gorillas","volume":"467","author":"Liu W","year":"2010","unstructured":"W Liu, et al., Origin of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum in gorillas. Nature 467, 420\u2013425 (2010).","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1458","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0914440107","article-title":"African great apes are natural hosts of multiple related malaria species, including Plasmodium falciparum","volume":"107","author":"Prugnolle F","year":"2010","unstructured":"F Prugnolle, et al., African great apes are natural hosts of multiple related malaria species, including Plasmodium falciparum. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107, 1458\u20131463 (2010).","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1956","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1612.100424","article-title":"Wild chimpanzees infected with 5 Plasmodium species","volume":"16","author":"Kaiser M","year":"2010","unstructured":"M Kaiser, et al., Wild chimpanzees infected with 5 Plasmodium species. Emerg Infect Dis 16, 1956\u20131959 (2010).","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1000765","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1000765","article-title":"On the diversity of malaria parasites in African apes and the origin of Plasmodium falciparum from Bonobos","volume":"6","author":"Krief S","year":"2010","unstructured":"S Krief, et al., On the diversity of malaria parasites in African apes and the origin of Plasmodium falciparum from Bonobos. PLoS Pathog 6, e1000765 (2010).","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14902","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0907740106","article-title":"The origin of malignant malaria","volume":"106","author":"Rich SM","year":"2009","unstructured":"SM Rich, et al., The origin of malignant malaria. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106, 14902\u201314907 (2009).","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pt.2011.01.006","article-title":"A plethora of Plasmodium species in wild apes: A source of human infection?","volume":"27","author":"Rayner JC","year":"2011","unstructured":"JC Rayner, W Liu, M Peeters, PM Sharp, BH Hahn, A plethora of Plasmodium species in wild apes: A source of human infection? 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Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107, 10561\u201310566 (2010).","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e57294","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0057294","article-title":"Anopheles moucheti and Anopheles vinckei are candidate vectors of ape Plasmodium parasites, including Plasmodium praefalciparum in Gabon","volume":"8","author":"Paupy C","year":"2013","unstructured":"C Paupy, et al., Anopheles moucheti and Anopheles vinckei are candidate vectors of ape Plasmodium parasites, including Plasmodium praefalciparum in Gabon. PLoS One 8, e57294 (2013).","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1001283","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1001283","article-title":"A fresh look at the origin of Plasmodium falciparum, the most malignant malaria agent","volume":"7","author":"Prugnolle F","year":"2011","unstructured":"F Prugnolle, et al., A fresh look at the origin of Plasmodium falciparum, the most malignant malaria agent. PLoS Pathog 7, e1001283 (2011).","journal-title":"PLoS Pathog"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2012.00197","article-title":"Mosquitoes as potential bridge vectors of malaria parasites from non-human primates to humans","volume":"3","author":"Verhulst NO","year":"2012","unstructured":"NO Verhulst, RC Smallegange, W Takken, Mosquitoes as potential bridge vectors of malaria parasites from non-human primates to humans. 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