{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,11]],"date-time":"2026-10-11T20:42:31Z","timestamp":1791751351322,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","issue":"20","content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2014,5,20]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Significance<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    African trypanosomes are parasites that can cause African sleeping sickness in humans. Humans and some primates, but not other mammals, have a gene called\n                    <jats:italic>APOL1<\/jats:italic>\n                    that protects against certain trypanosomes. Genetic variants in\n                    <jats:italic>APOL1<\/jats:italic>\n                    that arose in Africa are strongly associated with kidney disease in African Americans. These kidney disease-associated variants may have risen to high frequency in Africa because they can defend humans against a particularly pathogenic trypanosome. In this paper, we show how APOL1 has evolved by analyzing the distribution of these variants in Africa and then elucidating the molecular mechanisms that enhance their trypanosome killing capacity. We also show that these antitrypanosomal APOL1 variants may have adverse consequences for the host.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1400699111","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,5,7]],"date-time":"2014-05-07T21:40:56Z","timestamp":1399498856000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":219,"title":["Evolution of the primate trypanolytic factor APOL1"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"111","author":[{"given":"Russell","family":"Thomson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giulio","family":"Genovese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Renal Division and"},{"name":"Broad Institute of Harvard and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, MA 02215;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chelsea","family":"Canon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016;"},{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Hunter College at City University of New York, New York, NY 10065;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniella","family":"Kovacsics","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016;"},{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, Hunter College at City University of New York, New York, NY 10065;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew K.","family":"Higgins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department Biochemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QU, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark","family":"Carrington","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QW, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cheryl A.","family":"Winkler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Basic Research Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory, Frederick, MD 21702;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeffrey","family":"Kopp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kidney Disease Section, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charles","family":"Rotimi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Research on Genomics and Global Health, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adebowale","family":"Adeyemo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Research on Genomics and Global Health, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ayo","family":"Doumatey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Research on Genomics and Global Health, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George","family":"Ayodo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya; 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