{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,29]],"date-time":"2026-08-29T08:12:40Z","timestamp":1787991160987,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","issue":"22","content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,6,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Significance<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>There are \u223c5 million formerly imprisoned individuals residing in US neighborhoods, yet this population is highly concentrated in a relatively small number of neighborhoods, typically within metropolitan areas. I find that concentrating former prisoners in the same neighborhoods leads to significantly higher recidivism rates than if ex-prisoners were more dispersed across neighborhoods. The reasons why ex-prisoners concentrate in a select few urban neighborhoods include personal factors such as social ties to the neighborhood, but they also include institutional and structural barriers such as parole policies and housing market dynamics. Policy solutions that disperse the geographic concentration of former prisoners, while leading to some geographic displacement of recidivism, would likely yield a net reduction in recidivism in aggregate.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1501987112","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,14]],"date-time":"2015-05-14T17:38:31Z","timestamp":1431625111000},"page":"6943-6948","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["A natural experiment of the consequences of concentrating former prisoners in the same neighborhoods"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"112","author":[{"given":"David S.","family":"Kirk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology, Nuffield College, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3UQ, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_1_2","volume-title":"One in 100: Behind Bars in America 2008","author":"Pew Center on the States","year":"2008","unstructured":"; Pew Center on the States One in 100: Behind Bars in America 2008 (The Pew Charitable Trusts, Washington, DC, 2008)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","volume-title":"Prisoners in 2012 \u2013 Advance Counts","author":"Carson EA","year":"2013","unstructured":"EA Carson, D Golinelli Prisoners in 2012 \u2013 Advance Counts (Bureau of Justice Statistics, US Department of Justice, Washington, DC, 2013)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_2","volume-title":"Jail Inmates at Midyear 2012 \u2013 Statistical Tables","author":"Minton TD","year":"2013","unstructured":"TD Minton Jail Inmates at Midyear 2012 \u2013 Statistical Tables (Bureau of Justice Statistics, US Department of Justice, Washington, DC, 2013)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_2","unstructured":"; Bureau of Justice Statistics Total Sentenced Prisoners Released from State or Federal Jurisdiction (Bureau of Justice Statistics US Department of Justice Washington DC Available at www.bjs.gov\/content\/data\/corpop22.csv. Accessed March 31 2015. (2000)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_2","volume-title":"Prisoners in 2010","author":"Guerino P","year":"2011","unstructured":"P Guerino, PM Harrison, WJ Sabol Prisoners in 2010 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, US Department of Justice, Washington, DC, 2011)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_2","volume-title":"Prisoners in 2013","author":"Carson EA","year":"2014","unstructured":"EA Carson Prisoners in 2013 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, US Department of Justice, Washington, DC, 2014)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_2","volume-title":"Prevalence of Imprisonment in the US Population, 1974\u20132001","author":"Bonczar TP","year":"2003","unstructured":"TP Bonczar Prevalence of Imprisonment in the US Population, 1974\u20132001 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, US Department of Justice, Washington, DC, 2003)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/e720702011-001"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226733883.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1525\/fsr.2002.15.1.58"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_2","volume-title":"Recidivism of Prisoners Released in 30 States in 2005: Patterns from 2005 to 2010","author":"Durose MR","year":"2014","unstructured":"MR Durose, AD Cooper, H Snyder Recidivism of Prisoners Released in 30 States in 2005: Patterns from 2005 to 2010 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, US Department of Justice, Washington, DC, 2014)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_2","volume-title":"Principles of Criminology","author":"Sutherland EH","year":"1947","unstructured":"EH Sutherland Principles of Criminology (Lippincott, 4th Ed, Philadelphia, 1947).","edition":"4"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_2","volume-title":"The Subculture of Violence","author":"Wolfgang ME","year":"1981","unstructured":"ME Wolfgang, F Ferracuti The Subculture of Violence (Sage, Beverly Hills, CA, 1981)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10611-006-9045-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_2","first-page":"1190","article-title":"Cultural mechanisms and the persistence of neighborhood violence","volume":"116","author":"Kirk DS","year":"2011","unstructured":"DS Kirk, AV Papachristos, Cultural mechanisms and the persistence of neighborhood violence. AJS 116, 1190\u20131233 (2011).","journal-title":"AJS"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_2","volume-title":"Delinquency and Drift","author":"Matza D","year":"1964","unstructured":"D Matza Delinquency and Drift (Wiley, New York, 1964)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003055410000456"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2096397"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_19_2","first-page":"397","article-title":"Why do criminals obey the law? The influence of legitimacy and social networks on active gun offenders","volume":"102","author":"Papachristos AV","year":"2012","unstructured":"AV Papachristos, TL Meares, J Fagan, Why do criminals obey the law? The influence of legitimacy and social networks on active gun offenders. J Crim Law Criminol 102, 397\u2013440 (2012).","journal-title":"J Crim Law Criminol"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/07418820300095451"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10611-012-9375-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.2009.00166.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-071811-145511"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/000312240907400308"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-9125.2011.00262.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_26_2","unstructured":"; US Department of Housing and Urban Development Current Housing Unit Damage Estimates: Hurricanes Katrina Rita and Wilma (US Department of Housing and Urban Development Washington DC). Available at www.huduser.org\/publications\/pdf\/GulfCoast_Hsngdmgest.pdf. Accessed February 9 2013. (2006)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_27_2","unstructured":"; US Census Special Population Estimates for Impacted Counties in the Gulf Coast Area (US Census Washington DC). Available at www.census.gov\/newsroom\/emergencies\/additional\/impacted_gulf_estimates.html. Accessed February 9 2013. (2006)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_28_2","unstructured":"; US Census County Population Change: April 1 2000 to July 1 2009 (CO-EST2009-popchg2000-2009) (US Census Washington DC). Available at www.census.gov\/popest\/data\/counties\/totals\/2009\/index.html. Accessed February 9 2013. (2009)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_29_2","unstructured":"; US Census City and Town Intercensal Estimates (2000\u20132010) (US Census Washington DC). Available at www.census.gov\/popest\/data\/intercensal\/cities\/files\/SUB-EST00INT.csv. Accessed February 9 2013. (2012)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0002716213477070"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_31_2","first-page":"772","article-title":"Minimum wages and employment: A case study of the fast-food industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania","volume":"84","author":"Card D","year":"1994","unstructured":"D Card, AB Krueger, Minimum wages and employment: A case study of the fast-food industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Am Econ Rev 84, 772\u2013784 (1994).","journal-title":"Am Econ Rev"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/210356"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0022427800037001002"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_34_2","volume-title":"American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass","author":"Massey DS","year":"1993","unstructured":"DS Massey, NA Denton American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Harvard Univ Press, Cambridge, MA, 1993)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_35_2","volume-title":"The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy","author":"Wilson WJ","year":"1987","unstructured":"WJ Wilson The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Univ of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1987)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_36_2","unstructured":"; National Research Council Parole Desistance from Crime and Community Integration (National Academies Press Washington DC). (2007)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2298123"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_38_2","volume-title":"Why People Obey the Law","author":"Tyler TR","year":"1990","unstructured":"TR Tyler Why People Obey the Law (Yale Univ Press, New Haven, CT, 1990)."}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1073\/pnas.1501987112","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,13]],"date-time":"2022-04-13T00:33:13Z","timestamp":1649809993000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/full\/10.1073\/pnas.1501987112"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,14]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,6,2]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1073\/pnas.1501987112"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1501987112","relation":{},"ISSN":["0027-8424","1091-6490"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0027-8424","type":"print"},{"value":"1091-6490","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,14]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2015-05-14","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}