{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T15:33:56Z","timestamp":1791905636332,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":122,"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","issue":"23","content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,6,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    The evolution of C\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    grassland ecosystems in eastern Africa has been intensely studied because of the potential influence of vegetation on mammalian evolution, including that of our own lineage, hominins. Although a handful of sparse vegetation records exists from middle and early Miocene terrestrial fossil sites, there is no comprehensive record of vegetation through the Neogene. Here we present a vegetation record spanning the Neogene and Quaternary Periods that documents the appearance and subsequent expansion of C\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    grasslands in eastern Africa. Carbon isotope ratios from terrestrial plant wax biomarkers deposited in marine sediments indicate constant C\n                    <jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>\n                    vegetation from \u223c24 Ma to 10 Ma, when C\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    grasses first appeared. From this time forward, C\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    vegetation increases monotonically to present, with a coherent signal between marine core sites located in the Somali Basin and the Red Sea. The response of mammalian herbivores to the appearance of C\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    grasses at 10 Ma is immediate, as evidenced from existing records of mammalian diets from isotopic analyses of tooth enamel. The expansion of C\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    vegetation in eastern Africa is broadly mirrored by increasing proportions of C\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    -based foods in hominin diets, beginning at 3.8 Ma in\n                    <jats:italic>Australopithecus<\/jats:italic>\n                    and, slightly later,\n                    <jats:italic>Kenyanthropus<\/jats:italic>\n                    . This continues into the late Pleistocene in\n                    <jats:italic>Paranthropus<\/jats:italic>\n                    , whereas\n                    <jats:italic>Homo<\/jats:italic>\n                    maintains a flexible diet. The biomarker vegetation record suggests the increase in open, C\n                    <jats:sub>4<\/jats:sub>\n                    grassland ecosystems over the last 10 Ma may have operated as a selection pressure for traits and behaviors in\n                    <jats:italic>Homo<\/jats:italic>\n                    such as bipedalism, flexible diets, and complex social structure.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1521267113","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,6,6]],"date-time":"2016-06-06T23:44:38Z","timestamp":1465256678000},"page":"6355-6363","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":149,"title":["Neogene biomarker record of vegetation change in eastern Africa"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"113","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6882-0900","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kevin T.","family":"Uno","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, Palisades, NY 10964;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pratigya J.","family":"Polissar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, Palisades, NY 10964;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kevin E.","family":"Jackson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geology and Environmental Geosciences, Lafayette College, Easton, PA 18042;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter B.","family":"deMenocal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, Palisades, NY 10964;"},{"name":"Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,6,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msg050"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/318206"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.palaeo.2011.04.026"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature10306"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1175817"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-9956-3_11","volume-title":"Paleontology and Geology of Laetoli: Human Evolution in Context","author":"Bamford MK","year":"2011","unstructured":"MK Bamford, Fossil leaves, fruits and seeds. 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