{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T07:04:08Z","timestamp":1791443048984,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,14]],"date-time":"2018-11-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1542153600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":184,"URL":"http:\/\/www.pnas.org\/site\/aboutpnas\/licenses.xhtml"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004789","name":"John Fell Fund, University of Oxford","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["N\/A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N\/A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004789","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000524","name":"All Souls College, University of Oxford","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["N\/A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N\/A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000524","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,29]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Significance<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>An 1100 BCE to 800 CE record of estimated lead emissions based on continuous, subannually resolved, and precisely dated measurements of lead pollution in deep Greenland ice and atmospheric modeling shows that European emissions closely varied with historical events, including imperial expansion, wars, and major plagues. Emissions rose coeval with Phoenician expansion and accelerated during expanded Carthaginian and Roman lead\u2013silver mining primarily in the Iberian Peninsula. Emissions fluctuated synchronously with wars and political instability, particularly during the Roman Republic, reaching a sustained maximum during the Roman Empire before plunging in the second century coincident with the Antonine plague, and remaining low for &gt;500 years. Bullion in silver coinage declined in parallel, reflecting the importance of lead\u2013silver mining in ancient economies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1721818115","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,14]],"date-time":"2018-05-14T15:20:07Z","timestamp":1526311207000},"page":"5726-5731","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":229,"title":["Lead pollution recorded in Greenland ice indicates European emissions tracked plagues, wars, and imperial expansion during antiquity"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"115","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9051-5240","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joseph R.","family":"McConnell","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hydrologic Sciences, Desert Research Institute, Reno, NV 89512;"},{"name":"Visiting Fellow, All Souls College, University of Oxford, OX1 4AL Oxford, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5237-2234","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew I.","family":"Wilson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Classics, University of Oxford, OX1 3LU Oxford, United Kingdom;"},{"name":"School of Archaeology, University of Oxford, OX1 3TG Oxford, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andreas","family":"Stohl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Atmospheric and Climate Research, Norwegian Institute for Air Research, N-2027 Kjeller, Norway;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3444-9810","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Monica M.","family":"Arienzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hydrologic Sciences, Desert Research Institute, Reno, NV 89512;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nathan J.","family":"Chellman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Hydrologic Sciences, Desert Research Institute, Reno, NV 89512;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sabine","family":"Eckhardt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Atmospheric and Climate Research, Norwegian Institute for Air Research, N-2027 Kjeller, Norway;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elisabeth M.","family":"Thompson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Archaeology, University of Oxford, OX1 3TG Oxford, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"A. Mark","family":"Pollard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Archaeology, University of Oxford, OX1 3TG Oxford, United Kingdom;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J\u00f8rgen Peder","family":"Steffensen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Ice and Climate, University of Copenhagen, DK-1017 Copenhagen, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.272.5259.246"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/es970038k"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.265.5180.1841"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0075435800032135"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_2","first-page":"543","volume-title":"The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World","author":"Kehoe D","year":"2008","unstructured":"D Kehoe, The early Roman empire: Production. The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World, eds W Scheidel, I Morris, RP Saller (Cambridge Univ Press, Cambridge, UK), pp. 543\u2013569 (2008)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S104775940000742X"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep05848"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0803564105"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0048-9697(02)00031-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2007GB003059"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gca.2004.06.011"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/368323a0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/es304499c"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature14565"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0012-821X(01)00228-X"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5194\/cp-12-15-2016"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2593904"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_2","volume-title":"Lead and Lead Poisoning in Antiquity","author":"Nriagu JO","year":"1983","unstructured":"JO Nriagu Lead and Lead Poisoning in Antiquity (Wiley, New York, 1983)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_19_2","volume-title":"Furnaces and Smelting Technology in Antiquity","author":"Craddock PT","year":"1985","unstructured":"PT Craddock, M Hughes Furnaces and Smelting Technology in Antiquity; British Museum, Department of Scientific Research; Historical Metallurgy Society; British Museum, Research Laboratory (British Museum, Department of Scientific Research, London, 1985)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-5-2461-2005"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_2","unstructured":"A Wilson H Friedman Mining Database. Version 1.0. Available at oxrep.classics.ox.ac.uk\/databases\/mines_database\/. Accessed May 21 2017. (2010)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_2","unstructured":"AI Wilson The metal supply of the Roman Empire. Supplying Rome and the Roman Empire ed Papi E (JRA Supplement 69 ) (Journal of Roman Archaeology Portsmouth RI) pp 102\u2013125. (2007)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-10-4605-2017"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_2","volume-title":"Mineral Resources and Mines of Etruria","author":"Giardino C","year":"2014","unstructured":"C Giardino Mineral Resources and Mines of Etruria (Routledge, London, 2014)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/505217"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.56021\/9780801852916","volume-title":"Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. To A.D. 700","author":"Harl KW","year":"1996","unstructured":"KW Harl Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. To A.D. 700 (Johns Hopkins Univ Press, Baltimore, 1996)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511518591"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_28_2","volume-title":"Plutarch\u2019s Lives","author":"Perrin B","year":"1919","unstructured":"B Perrin Plutarch\u2019s Lives (W. Heinemann, London, 1919)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctv9b2txr"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_30_2","volume-title":"Mining, Metallurgy and Minting in the Middle Ages","author":"Blanchard I","year":"2001","unstructured":"I Blanchard Mining, Metallurgy and Minting in the Middle Ages (Franz Steiner, Stuttgart, Germany, 2001)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139225274","volume-title":"The Metallurgy of Roman Silver Coinage: From the Reform of Nero to the Reform of Trajan","author":"Butcher K","year":"2015","unstructured":"K Butcher, M Ponting The Metallurgy of Roman Silver Coinage: From the Reform of Nero to the Reform of Trajan (Cambridge Univ Press, Cambridge, UK, 2015)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/2017GH000064"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JD006079"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/es011088z"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1705595114"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0607657104"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1262005"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1144856"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.est.6b01108"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0012-821X(99)00103-X"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_41_2","volume-title":"Trace Elements in Biochemistry","author":"Bowen H","year":"1966","unstructured":"H Bowen Trace Elements in Biochemistry (Academic, New York, 1966)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_42_2","first-page":"207","article-title":"Experimental investigation of the effects of mineral dust on the reproducibility and accuracy of ice core trace element analyses","volume":"286","author":"Rhodes R","year":"2011","unstructured":"R Rhodes, J Baker, M Millet, N Bertler, Experimental investigation of the effects of mineral dust on the reproducibility and accuracy of ice core trace element analyses. Chem Geol 286, 207\u2013221 (2011).","journal-title":"Chem Geol"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeochem.2014.05.019"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-7037(87)90078-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/279409a0"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quascirev.2006.08.002"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5194\/cp-8-1929-2012"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/96JC02223"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nclimate2293"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_50_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1018312223189"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GB002270"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_52_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5194\/gmd-10-1447-2017"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_53_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1352-2310(98)00184-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_54_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-7-511-2007"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_55_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-13-8833-2013"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_56_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-4-51-2004"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_57_2","first-page":"25","article-title":"CERA-20C: An Earth system approach to climate reanalysis","volume":"150","author":"Laloyaux P","year":"2017","unstructured":"P Laloyaux, E de Boisseson, P Dahlgren, CERA-20C: An Earth system approach to climate reanalysis. ECMWF Newsletter 150, 25\u201330 (2017).","journal-title":"ECMWF Newsletter"}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/www.pnas.org\/syndication\/doi\/10.1073\/pnas.1721818115","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1073\/pnas.1721818115","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,2]],"date-time":"2023-09-02T12:41:27Z","timestamp":1693658487000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/full\/10.1073\/pnas.1721818115"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,14]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,29]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1073\/pnas.1721818115"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1721818115","relation":{},"ISSN":["0027-8424","1091-6490"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0027-8424","type":"print"},{"value":"1091-6490","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,14]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2018-05-14","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}