{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]],"date-time":"2026-06-10T15:12:46Z","timestamp":1781104366539,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,4]],"date-time":"2019-03-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1551657600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["DBI-1052875"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DBI-1052875"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000865","name":"Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["OPP1148627"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["OPP1148627"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000865","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,26]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Bed bugs have reemerged in the United States and worldwide over recent decades, presenting a major challenge to both public health practitioners and housing authorities. A number of municipalities have proposed or initiated policies to stem the bed bug epidemic, but little guidance is available to evaluate them. One contentious policy is disclosure, whereby landlords are obligated to notify potential tenants of current or prior bed bug infestations. Aimed to protect tenants from leasing an infested rental unit, disclosure also creates a kind of quarantine, partially and temporarily removing infested units from the market. Here, we develop a mathematical model for the spread of bed bugs in a generalized rental market, calibrate it to parameters of bed bug dispersion and housing turnover, and use it to evaluate the costs and benefits of disclosure policies to landlords. We find disclosure to be an effective control policy to curb infestation prevalence. Over the short term (within 5 years), disclosure policies result in modest increases in cost to landlords, while over the long term, reductions of infestation prevalence lead, on average, to savings. These results are insensitive to different assumptions regarding the prevalence of infestation, rate of introduction of bed bugs from other municipalities, and the strength of the quarantine effect created by disclosure. Beyond its application to bed bugs, our model offers a framework to evaluate policies to curtail the spread of household pests and is appropriate for systems in which spillover effects result in highly nonlinear cost\u2013benefit relationships.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1814647116","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,4]],"date-time":"2019-03-04T20:28:53Z","timestamp":1551731333000},"page":"6473-6481","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Dynamics of bed bug infestations and control under disclosure policies"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"116","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0186-8069","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sherrie","family":"Xie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6021;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6583-3623","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alison L.","family":"Hill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Program for Evolutionary Dynamics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chris R.","family":"Rehmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011-1066"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4661-3764","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael Z.","family":"Levy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics, Epidemiology and Informatics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6021;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_1_2","first-page":"4","volume-title":"Bed Bugs Across America: The 2015 Bed Bugs Without Borders Survey","author":"Potter MF","year":"2015","unstructured":"MF Potter, KF Haynes, J Fredericks Bed Bugs Across America: The 2015 Bed Bugs Without Borders Survey (National Pest Management Association, Fairfax, VA), pp. 4\u201314 (2015)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_2","first-page":"30","article-title":"The resurgence of bed bugs in Australia: With notes on their ecology and control","volume":"4","author":"Doggett SL","year":"2004","unstructured":"SL Doggett, MJ Geary, RC Russell, The resurgence of bed bugs in Australia: With notes on their ecology and control. Environ Health 4, 30\u201338 (2004).","journal-title":"Environ Health"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_2","first-page":"395","article-title":"Bed bug problems in Denmark, with a European perspective","author":"Kilpinen O","year":"2008","unstructured":"O Kilpinen, KMV Jensen, M Kristensen, Bed bug problems in Denmark, with a European perspective. Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Urban Pests 1316 (OOK Press, Veszpr\u00e9m, Hungary), pp. 395\u2013399 (2008).","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Urban Pests 1316"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1603\/ME13206","article-title":"Bed bugs are back and also arriving is the southernmost record of Cimex lectularius (Heteroptera: Cimicidae) in South America","volume":"51","author":"Fa\u00fandez EI","year":"2014","unstructured":"EI Fa\u00fandez, MA Carvajal, Bed bugs are back and also arriving is the southernmost record of Cimex lectularius (Heteroptera: Cimicidae) in South America. J Med Entomol 51, 1073\u20131076 (2014).","journal-title":"J Med Entomol"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_2","unstructured":"; New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene Community health survey. Available at www1.nyc.gov\/site\/doh\/data\/data-sets\/community-health-survey.page. Accessed June 3 2017. (2014)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.13-0714","article-title":"A door-to-door survey of bed bug (Cimex lectularius) infestations in row homes in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania","volume":"91","author":"Wu Y","year":"2014","unstructured":"Y Wu, DM Tracy, AM Barbarin, CM Barbu, MZ Levy, A door-to-door survey of bed bug (Cimex lectularius) infestations in row homes in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Am J Trop Med Hyg 91, 206\u2013210 (2014).","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1358","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2009.405","article-title":"Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius) and clinical consequences of their bites","volume":"301","author":"Goddard J","year":"2009","unstructured":"J Goddard, , Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius) and clinical consequences of their bites. J Am Med Assoc 301, 1358\u20131366 (2009).","journal-title":"J Am Med Assoc"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1007\/s00038-015-0713-8","article-title":"The mental health impact of bed bug infestations: A scoping review","volume":"60","author":"Ashcroft R","year":"2015","unstructured":"R Ashcroft, , The mental health impact of bed bug infestations: A scoping review. Int J Public Health 60, 827\u2013837 (2015).","journal-title":"Int J Public Health"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2012-000838","article-title":"Mental health effects from urban bed bug infestation (Cimex lectularius l.): A cross-sectional study","volume":"2","author":"Susser SR","year":"2012","unstructured":"SR Susser, , Mental health effects from urban bed bug infestation (Cimex lectularius l.): A cross-sectional study. BMJ Open 2:e000838, 1\u20135 (2012).","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1007\/s10730-013-9209-1","article-title":"Health care professionals and bedbugs: An ethical analysis of a resurgent scourge","volume":"25","author":"Lalibert\u00e9 M","year":"2013","unstructured":"M Lalibert\u00e9, M Hunt, B Williams-Jones, DE Feldman, Health care professionals and bedbugs: An ethical analysis of a resurgent scourge. HEC Forum 25, 245\u2013255 (2013).","journal-title":"HEC Forum"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_2","unstructured":"DM Miller S Kells Bed bug action plan for home health care and social workers (Virginia Cooperative Extension Blacksburg VA). Available at https:\/\/vtechworks.lib.vt.edu\/handle\/10919\/55941. Accessed August 19 2018. (2014)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_2","first-page":"1269","article-title":"Acute illnesses associated with insecticides used to control bed bugs\u2013seven states, 2003\u20132010","volume":"60","author":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)","year":"2011","unstructured":"; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Acute illnesses associated with insecticides used to control bed bugs\u2013seven states, 2003\u20132010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 60, 1269\u20131274 (2011).","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.14-0483","article-title":"Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius) as vectors of Trypanosoma cruzi","volume":"92","author":"Salazar R","year":"2015","unstructured":"R Salazar, , Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius) as vectors of Trypanosoma cruzi. Am J Trop Med Hyg 92, 331\u2013335 (2015).","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_14_2","first-page":"360","article-title":"Le Trypanosoma cruzi, evolue chez Conorrhinus megistus, Cimex lectularius, Cimer boueti et Ornithodorus moubata, Cycle \u00e9volutif de ce parasite","volume":"5","author":"Brumpt E","year":"1912","unstructured":"E Brumpt, Le Trypanosoma cruzi, evolue chez Conorrhinus megistus, Cimex lectularius, Cimer boueti et Ornithodorus moubata, Cycle \u00e9volutif de ce parasite. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 5, 360\u2013367 (1912).","journal-title":"Bull Soc Pathol Exot"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0003789","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003789","article-title":"Competence of Cimex lectularius bed bugs for the transmission of Bartonella quintana, the agent of trench fever","volume":"9","author":"Leulmi H","year":"2015","unstructured":"H Leulmi, , Competence of Cimex lectularius bed bugs for the transmission of Bartonella quintana, the agent of trench fever. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 9, e0003789 (2015).","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_16_2","unstructured":"Notice of bedbug infestation history New York City Administrative Code Sect. 27-2018.1 (2010)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_17_2","unstructured":"Bedbug infestation prevention treatment disclosure and reporting San Francisco Health Code Art. 11A Sect. 620-623 (2012)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_18_2","unstructured":"Amendments to Code; Chapter 3 Mason City IA City Code 10-2f-5 (2018)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_19_2","unstructured":"An act concerning the rights and responsibilities of landlords and tenants regarding the treatment of bed bug infestations Connecticut General Assembly Public Act No. 16-51 (2016)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_20_2","unstructured":"Treatment of bedbug infestation 14 - Maine Revised Statutes Sect. 6021-A (2009)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_21_2","unstructured":"M Gartland Landlords furious over possible bedbug disclosure law. New York Post . Available at https:\/\/nypost.com\/2017\/04\/24\/landlords-furious-over-possible-bedbug-disclosure-law\/. Accessed August 5 2018. (April 24 2017)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_22_2","unstructured":"C Buckley Legislature passes bedbug-notification law. The New York Times . Available at https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2010\/06\/25\/nyregion\/25bedbugs.html. Accessed August 5 2018. (June 25 2010)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1515\/9781400841035","volume-title":"Modeling Infectious Diseases in Humans and Animals","author":"Keeling MJ","year":"2008","unstructured":"MJ Keeling, P Rohani Modeling Infectious Diseases in Humans and Animals (Princeton Univ Press, Princeton, 2008)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_24_2","unstructured":"G Collins The high cost of tenant turnover. ManageCasa . Available at https:\/\/blog.managecasa.com\/true-costs-tenant-turnover\/. Accessed August 6 2018. (April 13 2018)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_25_2","unstructured":"; U.S. Census Bureau American CommunitySurvey 2017 American Community Survey 1-year estimates table B25064: Median gross rent. Available at factfinder.census.gov. Accessed December 12 2018. (2018)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_26_2","unstructured":"; U.S. Census Bureau Housing vacancies and homeownership (CPS\/HVS) Available at https:\/\/www.census.gov\/housing\/hvs\/index.html. Accessed March 26 2018. (2018)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_27_2","unstructured":"P Munger 2017 NAA survey of operating income & expenses in rental apartment communities. National Apartment Association . Available at https:\/\/www.naahq.org\/sites\/default\/files\/naa-documents\/about-membership\/ies_executive_summary_2017.pdf. Accessed March 26 2018. (2017)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1603\/ME11202","article-title":"Genetic analysis of bed bug populations reveals small propagule size within individual infestations but high genetic diversity across infestations from the eastern United States","volume":"49","author":"Saenz VL","year":"2012","unstructured":"VL Saenz, W Booth, C Schal, EL Vargo, Genetic analysis of bed bug populations reveals small propagule size within individual infestations but high genetic diversity across infestations from the eastern United States. 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Clin Microbiol Rev 25, 164\u2013192 (2012).","journal-title":"Clin Microbiol Rev"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.12-0493","article-title":"Bed bug detection: Current technologies and future directions","volume":"88","author":"Vaidyanathan R","year":"2013","unstructured":"R Vaidyanathan, MF Feldlaufer, Bed bug detection: Current technologies and future directions. Am J Trop Med Hyg 88, 619\u2013625 (2013).","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.3982","article-title":"Evaluation of a model community-wide bed bug management program in affordable housing","volume":"72","author":"Cooper RA","year":"2016","unstructured":"RA Cooper, C Wang, N Singh, Evaluation of a model community-wide bed bug management program in affordable housing. Pest Manage Sci 72, 45\u201356 (2016).","journal-title":"Pest Manage Sci"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.3390\/insects3020402","article-title":"Comparison of three bed bug management strategies in a low-income apartment building","volume":"3","author":"Wang C","year":"2012","unstructured":"C Wang, K Saltzmann, G Bennett, T Gibb, Comparison of three bed bug management strategies in a low-income apartment building. Insects 3, 402\u2013409 (2012).","journal-title":"Insects"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1603\/033.046.0322","article-title":"Evaluation of two least toxic integrated pest management programs for managing bed bugs (heteroptera: Cimicidae) with discussion of a bed bug intercepting device","volume":"46","author":"Wang C","year":"2009","unstructured":"C Wang, T Gibb, GW Bennett, Evaluation of two least toxic integrated pest management programs for managing bed bugs (heteroptera: Cimicidae) with discussion of a bed bug intercepting device. J Med Entomol 46, 566\u2013571 (2009).","journal-title":"J Med Entomol"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_35_2","first-page":"243","article-title":"Don\u2019t let them bite: Defining the responsibilities of landlords and tenants in the event of a bedbug infestation","volume":"80","author":"Gilbert SR","year":"2011","unstructured":"SR Gilbert, Don\u2019t let them bite: Defining the responsibilities of landlords and tenants in the event of a bedbug infestation. George Wash L Rev 80, 243\u2013273 (2011).","journal-title":"George Wash L Rev"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.3390\/insects2030343","article-title":"Analysis of 44 cases before the landlord and tenant board involving bed bug infestations in Ontario, Canada: Focus on adjudicator decisions based on entomological\/pest management evidence and accountability under the residential tenancy act and other applicable legislation","volume":"2","author":"Bryks S","year":"2011","unstructured":"S Bryks, Analysis of 44 cases before the landlord and tenant board involving bed bug infestations in Ontario, Canada: Focus on adjudicator decisions based on entomological\/pest management evidence and accountability under the residential tenancy act and other applicable legislation. 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(2018)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.3934\/mbe.2016025","article-title":"Modeling the spread of bed bug infestation and optimal resource allocation for disinfestation","volume":"13","author":"Gharouni A","year":"2016","unstructured":"A Gharouni, L Wang, Modeling the spread of bed bug infestation and optimal resource allocation for disinfestation. Math Biosci Eng 13, 969\u2013980 (2016).","journal-title":"Math Biosci Eng"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_42_2","unstructured":"K Barker Behind New York\u2019s housing crisis: Weakened laws and fragmented regulation. The New York Times . Available at https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/interactive\/2018\/05\/20\/nyregion\/affordable-housing-nyc.html. Accessed August 5 2018. (May 20 2018)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_43_2","unstructured":"W Richter Here\u2019s how San Francisco\u2019s housing market took a turn toward crisis. Business Insider . Available at https:\/\/www.businessinsider.com\/san-francisco-housing-market-is-now-commonly-seen-as-being-in-crisis-2018-7. Accessed August 13 2018. (July 17 2018)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_44_2","unstructured":"K Phillips A woman tries to kill bed bugs with alcohol\u2014and set a fire that left 10 without a home. Washington Post . Available at https:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/news\/post-nation\/wp\/2017\/12\/10\/a-woman-tried-to-kill-bed-bugs-with-alcohol-and-set-a-fire-that-left-10-without-a-home. Accessed August 21 2018. (December 10 2017)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203458204","volume-title":"Housing Policy in the United States","author":"Schwartz AF","year":"2014","unstructured":"AF Schwartz Housing Policy in the United States (Routledge, New York, 2014)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_46_2","volume-title":"Pests in the City: Flies, Bedbugs, Cockroaches, and Rats","author":"Biehler DD","year":"2013","unstructured":"DD Biehler Pests in the City: Flies, Bedbugs, Cockroaches, and Rats (University of Washington Press, Seattle, 2013)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_47_2","first-page":"26","article-title":"Partial resistance of a strain of bed bugs to DDT residual","volume":"12","author":"Johnson M","year":"1948","unstructured":"M Johnson, A Hill, Partial resistance of a strain of bed bugs to DDT residual. Med News Lett 12, 26\u201328 (1948).","journal-title":"Med News Lett"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1093\/jme\/tjv158","article-title":"Seasons, searches, and intentions: What the internet can tell us about the bed bug (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) epidemic","volume":"53","author":"Sentana-Lledo D","year":"2016","unstructured":"D Sentana-Lledo, , Seasons, searches, and intentions: What the internet can tell us about the bed bug (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) epidemic. J Med Entomol 53, 116\u2013121 (2016).","journal-title":"J Med Entomol"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tpb.2004.08.002","article-title":"The implications of network structure for epidemic dynamics","volume":"67","author":"Keeling M","year":"2005","unstructured":"M Keeling, The implications of network structure for epidemic dynamics. Theor Popul Biol 67, 1\u20138 (2005).","journal-title":"Theor Popul Biol"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_50_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jip.2012.04.009","article-title":"A preliminary evaluation of the potential of Beauveria bassiana for bed bug control","volume":"111","author":"Barbarin AM","year":"2012","unstructured":"AM Barbarin, NE Jenkins, EG Rajotte, MB Thomas, A preliminary evaluation of the potential of Beauveria bassiana for bed bug control. J Invertebr Pathol 111, 82\u201385 (2012).","journal-title":"J Invertebr Pathol"}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/www.pnas.org\/syndication\/doi\/10.1073\/pnas.1814647116","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1073\/pnas.1814647116","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,7]],"date-time":"2022-06-07T15:03:23Z","timestamp":1654614203000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/full\/10.1073\/pnas.1814647116"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,4]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,26]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1073\/pnas.1814647116"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.1814647116","relation":{},"ISSN":["0027-8424","1091-6490"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0027-8424","type":"print"},{"value":"1091-6490","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,4]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2019-03-04","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}