{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,28]],"date-time":"2026-10-28T21:35:37Z","timestamp":1793223337494,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","issue":"26","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,11]],"date-time":"2020-12-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1607644800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":183,"URL":"https:\/\/www.pnas.org\/site\/aboutpnas\/licenses.xhtml"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    People\u2019s actions toward a competitive outgroup can be motivated not only by their perceptions of the outgroup, but also by how they think the outgroup perceives the ingroup (i.e., meta-perceptions). Here, we examine the prevalence, accuracy, and consequences of meta-perceptions among American political partisans. Using a representative sample (\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 1,056) and a longitudinal convenience sample (\n                    <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 2,707), we find that Democrats and Republicans equally dislike and dehumanize each other but think that the levels of prejudice and dehumanization held by the outgroup party are approximately twice as strong as actually reported by a representative sample of Democrats and Republicans. Overestimations of negative meta-perceptions were consistent across samples over time and between demographic subgroups but were modulated by political ideology: More strongly liberal Democrats and more strongly conservative Republicans were particularly prone to exaggerate meta-perceptions. Finally, we show that meta-prejudice and meta-dehumanization are independently associated with the desire for social distance from members of the outgroup party and support for policies that harm the country and flout democratic norms to favor the ingroup political party. This research demonstrates that partisan meta-perceptions are subject to a strong negativity bias with Democrats and Republicans agreeing that the shadow of partisanship is much larger than it actually is, which fosters mutual intergroup hostility.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2001263117","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,11]],"date-time":"2020-06-11T19:57:04Z","timestamp":1591905424000},"page":"14864-14872","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":194,"title":["Exaggerated meta-perceptions predict intergroup hostility between American political partisans"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"117","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2972-2288","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samantha L.","family":"Moore-Berg","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104;"},{"name":"Beyond Conflict, Boston, MA 02108;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lee-Or","family":"Ankori-Karlinsky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Beyond Conflict, Boston, MA 02108;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0241-9839","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Boaz","family":"Hameiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104;"},{"name":"Beyond Conflict, Boston, MA 02108;"},{"name":"The Evens Program in Conflict Resolution and Mediation, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv-Yafo 6997801, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7294-8675","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emile","family":"Bruneau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104;"},{"name":"Beyond Conflict, Boston, MA 02108;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1353\/jod.2019.0039","article-title":"Polarization versus democracy","volume":"30","author":"Svolik M.","year":"2019","unstructured":"M. Svolik, Polarization versus democracy. J. Democracy 30, 20\u201332 (2019).","journal-title":"J. Democracy"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2020.05.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_2","unstructured":"Monmouth University Americans feel divided on core values. https:\/\/www.monmouth.edu\/polling-institute\/reports\/monmouthpoll_us_101419\/. Assessed 3 January 2020."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-polisci-051117-073034","article-title":"The origins and consequences of affective polarization in the United States","volume":"22","author":"Iyengar S.","year":"2019","unstructured":"S. Iyengar, Y. Lelkes, M. Levendusky, N. Malhotra, S. Westwood, The origins and consequences of affective polarization in the United States. Annu. Rev. Polit. Sci. 22, 129\u2013146 (2019).","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Polit. Sci."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1093\/poq\/nfs038","article-title":"Affect, not ideology: A social identity perspective on polarization","volume":"76","author":"Iyengar S.","year":"2012","unstructured":"S. Iyengar, G. Sood, Y. Lelkes, Affect, not ideology: A social identity perspective on polarization. Public Opin. Q. 76, 405\u2013431 (2012).","journal-title":"Public Opin. Q."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1295","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167206289979","article-title":"Why do I hate thee? Conflict misperceptions and intergroup mistrust","volume":"32","author":"Chambers J. R.","year":"2006","unstructured":"J. R. Chambers, D. Melnyk, Why do I hate thee? Conflict misperceptions and intergroup mistrust. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 32, 1295\u20131311 (2006).","journal-title":"Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1093\/poq\/nfv045","article-title":"(Mis)perceptions of partisan polarization in the American public","volume":"80","author":"Levendusky M.","year":"2016","unstructured":"M. Levendusky, N. Malhotra, (Mis)perceptions of partisan polarization in the American public. Public Opin. Q. 80, 378\u2013391 (2016).","journal-title":"Public Opin. Q."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.68.3.404","article-title":"Actual versus assumed differences in construal: \u201cNa\u00efve realism\u201d in intergroup perception and conflict","volume":"68","author":"Robinson R. J.","year":"1995","unstructured":"R. J. Robinson, D. Keltner, A. Ward, L. Ross, Actual versus assumed differences in construal: \u201cNa\u00efve realism\u201d in intergroup perception and conflict. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 68, 404\u2013417 (1995).","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691615569849","article-title":"Perceiving political polarization in the United States: Party identity strength and attitude extremity exacerbate the perceived partisan divide","volume":"10","author":"Westfall J.","year":"2015","unstructured":"J. Westfall, L. Van Boven, J. R. Chambers, C. M. Judd, Perceiving political polarization in the United States: Party identity strength and attitude extremity exacerbate the perceived partisan divide. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 10, 145\u2013158 (2015).","journal-title":"Perspect. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2005.01662.x","article-title":"Misperceptions in intergroup conflict. Disagreeing about what we disagree about","volume":"17","author":"Chambers J. R.","year":"2006","unstructured":"J. R. Chambers, R. S. Baron, M. L. Inman, Misperceptions in intergroup conflict. Disagreeing about what we disagree about. Psychol. Sci. 17, 38\u201345 (2006).","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1207\/S15324834BASP2504_2","article-title":"Na\u00efve realism and affirmative action: Adversaries are more similar than they think","volume":"25","author":"Sherman D. K.","year":"2003","unstructured":"D. K. Sherman, L. D. Nelson, L. D. Ross, Na\u00efve realism and affirmative action: Adversaries are more similar than they think. Basic Appl. Soc. Psych. 25, 275\u2013290 (2003).","journal-title":"Basic Appl. Soc. Psych."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.78.4.690","article-title":"Meta-stereotype activation: Evidence from indirect measures for specific evaluative concerns experienced by members of dominant groups in intergroup interaction","volume":"78","author":"Vorauer J. D.","year":"2000","unstructured":"J. D. Vorauer, A. J. Hunter, K. J. Main, S. A. Roy, Meta-stereotype activation: Evidence from indirect measures for specific evaluative concerns experienced by members of dominant groups in intergroup interaction. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 78, 690\u2013707 (2000).","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.75.4.917","article-title":"How do individuals expect to be viewed by members of lower status groups? Content and implications of meta-stereotypes","volume":"75","author":"Vorauer J. D.","year":"1998","unstructured":"J. D. Vorauer, K. J. Main, G. B. O\u2019Connell, How do individuals expect to be viewed by members of lower status groups? Content and implications of meta-stereotypes. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 75, 917\u2013937 (1998).","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721417708230","article-title":"Darker demons of our nature: The need to (re)focus attention on blatant forms of dehumanization","volume":"26","author":"Kteily N.","year":"2017","unstructured":"N. Kteily, E. Bruneau, Darker demons of our nature: The need to (re)focus attention on blatant forms of dehumanization. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 26, 487\u2013494 (2017).","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1037\/pspa0000044","article-title":"They see us as less than human: Metadehumanization predicts intergroup conflict via reciprocal dehumanization","volume":"110","author":"Kteily N.","year":"2016","unstructured":"N. Kteily, G. Hodson, E. Bruneau, They see us as less than human: Metadehumanization predicts intergroup conflict via reciprocal dehumanization. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 110, 343\u2013370 (2016).","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1177\/1368430216684645","article-title":"Are they for us or against us? How intergroup metaperceptions shape foreign policy attitudes","volume":"21","author":"O\u2019Brien T. C.","year":"2018","unstructured":"T. C. O\u2019Brien, B. Leidner, L. R. Tropp, Are they for us or against us? How intergroup metaperceptions shape foreign policy attitudes. Group Process. Intergroup Relat. 21, 941\u2013961 (2018).","journal-title":"Group Process. Intergroup Relat."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167216675334","article-title":"Backlash: The politics and real-world consequences of minority group dehumanization","volume":"43","author":"Kteily N.","year":"2017","unstructured":"N. Kteily, E. Bruneau, Backlash: The politics and real-world consequences of minority group dehumanization. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 43, 87\u2013104 (2017).","journal-title":"Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1080\/10584609.2015.1038455","article-title":"Does media coverage of partisan polarization affect political attitudes?","volume":"33","author":"Levendusky M.","year":"2016","unstructured":"M. Levendusky, N. Malhotra, Does media coverage of partisan polarization affect political attitudes? Polit. Commun. 33, 283\u2013301 (2016).","journal-title":"Polit. Commun."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S. L. Moore-Berg L.-O. Ankori-Karlinsky B. Hameiri E. Bruneau Exaggerated meta-perceptions predict intergroup hostility between American political partisans. Open Science Framework. https:\/\/osf.io\/hnq7j\/. Deposited 8 January 2020.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/d6bpe"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0181422","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0181422","article-title":"The enemy as animal: Symmetric dehumanization during asymmetric warefare","volume":"12","author":"Bruneau E.","year":"2017","unstructured":"E. Bruneau, N. Kteily, The enemy as animal: Symmetric dehumanization during asymmetric warefare. PLoS One 12, e0181422 (2017).","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_21_2","volume-title":"An Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach","author":"Hayes A. F.","year":"2018","unstructured":"A. F. Hayes, An Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach, (Guilford Press, ed. 2, 2018).","edition":"2"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_22_2","unstructured":"E. Bradner D. Merica Trump\u2019s family separation policy has Republicans starting to panic about 2018. CNN Politics. https:\/\/www.cnn.com\/2018\/06\/18\/politics\/family-separations-2018-midterms-republicans-trump\/index.html. Accessed 18 June 2018."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327957pspr1003_5","article-title":"Being seen as individuals versus as group members: Extending research on metaperception to intergroup contexts","volume":"10","author":"Frey F. E.","year":"2006","unstructured":"F. E. Frey, L. R. Tropp, Being seen as individuals versus as group members: Extending research on metaperception to intergroup contexts. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 10, 265\u2013280 (2006).","journal-title":"Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1086\/697253","article-title":"The parties in our heads: Misperceptions about party composition and their consequences","volume":"80","author":"Ahler D. J.","year":"2018","unstructured":"D. J. Ahler, G. Sood, The parties in our heads: Misperceptions about party composition and their consequences. J. Polit. 80, 964\u2013981 (2018).","journal-title":"J. Polit."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.electstud.2018.09.009","article-title":"Elite polarization, party extremity, and affective polarization","volume":"56","author":"Banda K. K.","year":"2018","unstructured":"K. K. Banda, J. Cluverius, Elite polarization, party extremity, and affective polarization. Elect. Stud. 56, 90\u2013101 (2018).","journal-title":"Elect. Stud."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9216","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1804840115","article-title":"Exposure to opposing views on social media can increase political polarization","volume":"115","author":"Bail C. A.","year":"2018","unstructured":"C. A. Bail ., Exposure to opposing views on social media can increase political polarization. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 115, 9216\u20139221 (2018).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327957pspr1003_4","article-title":"Dehumanization: An integrative review","volume":"10","author":"Haslam N.","year":"2006","unstructured":"N. Haslam, Dehumanization: An integrative review. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 10, 252\u2013264 (2006).","journal-title":"Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1134475","article-title":"Dimensions of mind perception","volume":"315","author":"Gray H. M.","year":"2007","unstructured":"H. M. Gray, K. Gray, D. M. Wegner, Dimensions of mind perception. Science 315, 619 (2007).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_29_2","volume-title":"Less Than Human: Why We Demean, Enslave, and Exterminate Others","author":"Smith D. L.","year":"2011","unstructured":"D. L. Smith, Less Than Human: Why We Demean, Enslave, and Exterminate Others, (St. Martin\u2019s Press, 2011)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-019-0766-4","article-title":"Inaccurate group meta-perceptions drive negative out-group attributions in competitive contexts","volume":"4","author":"Lees J.","year":"2020","unstructured":"J. Lees, M. Cikara, Inaccurate group meta-perceptions drive negative out-group attributions in competitive contexts. Nat. Hum. Behav. 4, 279\u2013286 (2020).","journal-title":"Nat. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.65.6.1105","article-title":"Assessing the structure of prejudicial attitudes: The case of attitudes toward homosexuals","volume":"65","author":"Haddock G.","year":"1993","unstructured":"G. Haddock, M. P. Zanna, V. M. Esses, Assessing the structure of prejudicial attitudes: The case of attitudes toward homosexuals. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 65, 1105\u20131118 (1993).","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1037\/pspp0000048","article-title":"The ascent of man: Theoretical and empirical evidence for blatant dehumanization","volume":"109","author":"Kteily N.","year":"2015","unstructured":"N. Kteily, E. Bruneau, A. Waytz, S. Cotterill, The ascent of man: Theoretical and empirical evidence for blatant dehumanization. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 109, 901\u2013931 (2015).","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.2307\/2785570","article-title":"Measurement of personal-group relations","volume":"10","author":"Bogardus E. S.","year":"1947","unstructured":"E. S. Bogardus, Measurement of personal-group relations. Sociometry 10, 306\u2013311 (1947).","journal-title":"Sociometry"}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1073\/pnas.2001263117","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,7]],"date-time":"2022-06-07T17:37:48Z","timestamp":1654623468000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/full\/10.1073\/pnas.2001263117"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,11]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"26","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,30]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1073\/pnas.2001263117"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.2001263117","relation":{},"ISSN":["0027-8424","1091-6490"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0027-8424","type":"print"},{"value":"1091-6490","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,11]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2020-06-11","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}