{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,2]],"date-time":"2026-11-02T14:30:10Z","timestamp":1793629810782,"version":"4.5.1"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","issue":"25","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,14]],"date-time":"2021-06-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1623628800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,22]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Significance<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Iran is facing a state of water bankruptcy that threatens its socioeconomic development and natural environments. Using an exceptionally rich measured groundwater dataset, we illustrate the extent and severity of Iran\u2019s groundwater depletion and salinization problems during the 2002 to 2015 period, when the number of groundwater extraction points nearly doubled. Iran\u2019s nonrenewable groundwater withdrawal was about 66 million m\n                    <jats:sup>3<\/jats:sup>\n                    in 1965, which cumulatively grew to approximately 133 \u00d7 10\n                    <jats:sup>3<\/jats:sup>\n                    million m\n                    <jats:sup>3<\/jats:sup>\n                    in 2019. This increase is about 3.4 times the capacity of the famous Three Gorges Dam in China. Groundwater decline due to extensive overexploitation of nonrenewable groundwater and rising salinity levels are documented in almost all subbasins, pointing to dire, worsening water security risks across the country.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2024221118","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,14]],"date-time":"2021-06-14T16:47:05Z","timestamp":1623689225000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":186,"title":["Anthropogenic depletion of Iran\u2019s aquifers"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"118","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7463-8563","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roohollah","family":"Noori","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Water, Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Unit, Faculty of Technology, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4841-2384","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohsen","family":"Maghrebi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Environment, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, 1417853111 Tehran, Iran;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9649-2964","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ali","family":"Mirchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0886-6699","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qiuhong","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Water Cycle and Related Land Surface Processes, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100101 Beijing, China;"},{"name":"College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049 Beijing, China;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3433-299X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rabin","family":"Bhattarai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana\u2013Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1775-5445","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mojtaba","family":"Sadegh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Boise State University, Boise, ID;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4815-6277","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mojtaba","family":"Noury","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, 1477893855 Tehran, Iran;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5157-0156","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ali","family":"Torabi Haghighi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Water, Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Unit, Faculty of Technology, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bj\u00f8rn","family":"Kl\u00f8ve","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Water, Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Unit, Faculty of Technology, University of Oulu, 90014 Oulu, Finland;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0378-3170","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kaveh","family":"Madani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Whitney and Betty MacMillan Center for International and Area Studies, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511;"},{"name":"Department of Physical Geography, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/w11091835"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2020EF001547"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_2","first-page":"170","article-title":"The origin and spread of qanats in the Old World","volume":"112","author":"English P. W.","year":"1968","unstructured":"P. W. English, The origin and spread of qanats in the Old World. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 112, 170\u2013181 (1968).","journal-title":"Proc. Am. Philos. Soc."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1061\/40976(316)77"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-12877-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-018-2336-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_2","unstructured":"IPRC (Iranian Parliament Research Center) \u201cAn analysis of Iran's water crisis and its impacts\u201d [in Persian] (2017). https:\/\/rc.majlis.ir\/fa\/report\/show\/1040201. 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Nabavi, Failed policies, falling aquifers: Unpacking groundwater overabstraction in Iran. Water Altern. 11, 699\u2013724 (2018).","journal-title":"Water Altern."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15715124.2015.1081209"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ngeo1617"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature21403"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/wrcr.20078"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.09.025"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_22_2","volume-title":"Summary of the status of groundwater table and storage in Iran's alluvial aquifers (2019\u20132020 Water Year)","author":"IWRMC (Iran Water Resources Management Company)","year":"2020","unstructured":"IWRMC (Iran Water Resources Management Company), Summary of the status of groundwater table and storage in Iran's alluvial aquifers (2019\u20132020 Water Year). Iran Ministry of Energy, Iran [In Persian] (2020)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_23_2","unstructured":"USSL (US Salinity Laboratory) \u201cDiagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils\u201d (Agricultural Handbook No. 60 US Department of Agriculture 1954)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-08066-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-007-9613-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2019RG000683"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_27_2","unstructured":"IWRMC (Iran Water Resources Management Company) \u201cA guideline for selecting groundwater resources (wells springs and qanats) and measuring groundwater discharge and withdrawal\u201d [in Persian] (Tech. Rep. 420-336-1448 Iran Ministry of Energy Iran 2002)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_28_2","volume-title":"Groundwaters of Marlborough","author":"Davidson P.","year":"2011","unstructured":"P. Davidson, S. Wilson, Groundwaters of Marlborough (Marlborough District Council, New Zealand, 2011)."}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1073\/pnas.2024221118","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,13]],"date-time":"2022-04-13T05:58:17Z","timestamp":1649829497000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/full\/10.1073\/pnas.2024221118"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,14]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"25","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,22]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1073\/pnas.2024221118"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.2024221118","relation":{},"ISSN":["0027-8424","1091-6490"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0027-8424","type":"print"},{"value":"1091-6490","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,14]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2021-06-14","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"e2024221118"}}