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Despite this breadth and scale, science and policy remain unresolved regarding the effects of glyphosate on human health. We identify the causal effect of glyphosate exposure on perinatal health by combining 1) county-level variation in glyphosate use driven by 2) the timing of the GM technology and 3) differential geographic suitability for GM crops. Our results suggest the introduction of GM seeds and glyphosate significantly reduced average birthweight and gestational length. While we find effects throughout the birthweight distribution, low expected-weight births experienced the largest reductions: Glyphosate\u2019s birthweight effect for births in the lowest decile is 12 times larger than that in the highest decile. Together, these estimates suggest that glyphosate exposure caused previously undocumented and unequal health costs for rural US communities over the last 20 years.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2413013121","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,14]],"date-time":"2025-01-14T13:37:30Z","timestamp":1736861850000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Glyphosate exposure and GM seed rollout unequally reduced perinatal health"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"122","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4097-5622","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emmett","family":"Reynier","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics","place":["Eugene"]},{"name":"University of Oregon","place":["Eugene"]},{"name":"Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education Research Fellow","place":["Washington"]},{"name":"Water Economics Center","place":["Washington"]},{"name":"Office of Water","place":["Washington"]},{"name":"United States Environmental Protection Agency","place":["Washington"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9862-8677","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edward","family":"Rubin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics","place":["Eugene"]},{"name":"University of Oregon","place":["Eugene"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2135\/cropsci2012.06.0399"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_2","unstructured":"J. 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