{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T18:28:55Z","timestamp":1793384935211,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":17,"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,21]],"date-time":"2025-01-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737417600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,28]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Using administrative and survey data, we show that there has been a sea change in the contours of American imprisonment. At the end of the twentieth century, inequality in the prison admission rates of Black and White Americans was comparable to inequality in the prison admission rates of people with and without a college education. However, educational inequality is now much greater than racial inequality in prison admissions for all major crime types. Violent offenses have replaced drug offenses as the primary driver of Black prison admissions and Black\u2013White inequality in the prison admission rate. The prison admission rate of Black Americans has fallen, but the prison admission rate of White Americans with no college education has dramatically increased for all offense categories. These findings, which are robust to adjustments for changing selection into college attendance, contribute to a growing body of evidence documenting narrowing racial inequality and widening educational inequality in Americans\u2019 life chances.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2418077122","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,21]],"date-time":"2025-01-21T09:21:24Z","timestamp":1737451284000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Falling racial inequality and rising educational inequality in US prison admissions for drug, violent, and property crimes"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"122","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3855-3375","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christopher","family":"Muller","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology","place":["Cambridge"]},{"name":"Harvard University","place":["Cambridge"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4996-9317","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexander F.","family":"Roehrkasse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sociology and Criminology","place":["Indianapolis"]},{"name":"Butler University","place":["Indianapolis"]},{"name":"National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect","place":["Ithaca"]},{"name":"Jeb E. Brooks School of Public Policy, Cornell University","place":["Ithaca"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_1_2","volume-title":"Punishment and Inequality in America","author":"Western B.","year":"2006","unstructured":"B. Western, Punishment and Inequality in America (Russell Sage Foundation, 2006)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abo3395"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/588492"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_2","volume-title":"The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness","author":"Alexander M.","year":"2010","unstructured":"M. Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (The New Press, 2010)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_2","first-page":"21","article-title":"Racial critiques of mass incarceration: Beyond the New Jim Crow","volume":"87","author":"Forman J.","year":"2012","unstructured":"J. Forman Jr., Racial critiques of mass incarceration: Beyond the New Jim Crow. NYUL Rev. 87, 21 (2012).","journal-title":"NYUL Rev."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_2","volume-title":"Locked In: The True Causes of Mass Incarceration and How to Achieve Real Reform","author":"Pfaff J.","year":"2017","unstructured":"J. Pfaff, Locked In: The True Causes of Mass Incarceration and How to Achieve Real Reform (Basic Books, 2017)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1462474520925145"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1215\/00703370-10863378"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/sf\/soab018"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_2","first-page":"803","article-title":"Racial and class inequality in US incarceration in the early twenty-first century","volume":"101","author":"Muller C.","year":"2022","unstructured":"C. Muller, A. F. Roehrkasse, Racial and class inequality in US incarceration in the early twenty-first century. Soc. Forces 101, 803\u2013828 (2022).","journal-title":"Soc. Forces"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_2","unstructured":"C. Muller A. F. Roehrkasse Falling racial inequality and rising educational inequality in US prison admissions for drug violent and property crimes (replication package). Open Science Framework. https:\/\/osf.io\/arp3j\/. Deposited 27 July 2024."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/714062"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abj7781"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_2","volume-title":"Deaths of Despair and the Future of Capitalism","author":"Case A.","year":"2020","unstructured":"A. Case, A. Deaton, Deaths of Despair and the Future of Capitalism (Princeton University Press, 2020)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2024777118"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R. Chetty W. Dobbie B. Goldman S. Porter \u201cChanging opportunity: Sociological mechanisms underlying growing class gaps and shrinking race gaps in economic mobility\" (NBER Working Paper 3269 2024). https:\/\/www.nber.org\/papers\/w32697. 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