{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,4]],"date-time":"2026-11-04T02:56:55Z","timestamp":1793761015700,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","issue":"3","content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,2,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Scorpion venom is a complex mixture of salts, small molecules, peptides, and proteins. Scorpions employ this valuable tool in several sophisticated ways for subduing prey, deterring predators, and possibly during mating. Here, a subtle but clever strategy of venom utilization by scorpions is reported. Scorpions secrete a small quantity of transparent venom when initially stimulated that we propose to name prevenom. If secretion continues, a cloudy and dense venom that is white in color is subsequently released. The prevenom contains a combination of high K\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    salt and several peptides including some that block rectifying K\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    channels and elicit significant pain and toxicity because of a massive local depolarization. The presence of high extracellular K\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    in the prevenom can depolarize cells and also decrease the local electrochemical gradient making it more difficult to reestablish the resting potential. When this positive change to the K\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    equilibrium potential is combined with the blockage of rectifying K\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    channels, this further delays the recovery of the resting potential, causing a prolonged effect. We propose that the prevenom of scorpions is used as a highly efficacious predator deterrent and for immobilizing small prey while conserving metabolically expensive venom until a certain level of stimuli is reached, after which the venom is secreted.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.242735499","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2003,2,4]],"date-time":"2003-02-04T12:24:41Z","timestamp":1044361481000},"page":"922-927","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":151,"title":["One scorpion, two venoms: Prevenom of\n                    <i>Parabuthus transvaalicus<\/i>\n                    acts as an alternative type of venom with distinct mechanism of action"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"100","author":[{"given":"Bora","family":"Inceoglu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Entomology and Cancer Research Center, Chemistry and Superfund Analytical Laboratory, Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, and Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jozsef","family":"Lango","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Entomology and Cancer Research Center, Chemistry and Superfund Analytical Laboratory, Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, and Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jie","family":"Jing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Entomology and Cancer Research Center, Chemistry and Superfund Analytical Laboratory, Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, and Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lili","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Entomology and Cancer Research Center, Chemistry and Superfund Analytical Laboratory, Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, and Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fuat","family":"Doymaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Entomology and Cancer Research Center, Chemistry and Superfund Analytical Laboratory, Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, and Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isaac N.","family":"Pessah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Entomology and Cancer Research Center, Chemistry and Superfund Analytical Laboratory, Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, and Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bruce D.","family":"Hammock","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Entomology and Cancer Research Center, Chemistry and Superfund Analytical Laboratory, Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, and Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2003,1,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-0101(00)00157-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1091\/mbc.8.11.2101"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_3_2","first-page":"247","volume-title":"The Biology of Scorpions","author":"Polis G A","year":"1990","unstructured":"G A Polis The Biology of Scorpions, ed G A Polis (Stanford Univ. 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