{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T06:49:51Z","timestamp":1790318991143,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":104,"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","issue":"33","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1786320000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"NSF","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["21-582"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21-582"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003130","name":"Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["G075217N"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["G075217N"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003130","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Illegal markets, broadly defined to include markets where only specific transactions are illegal, are the consequence of policy, either a prohibition or highly restrictive regulation. They are generated by a variety of concerns, some moral, some pragmatic. They are often tied to legal markets, complicating the policy process. These markets are ubiquitous, rarely well controlled and little studied as markets. This article examines variations in illegality from the case studies in this Special Feature and synthesizes what can be learned about the success and failure of different approaches to controlling these markets. Control is often weak because powerful legal interests are opposed to tight regulation and, especially in markets with large underlying demand, rarely leads to substantial reductions in the targeted activity, unless draconian methods are used. As demonstrated by drug markets, tough enforcement can have large adverse collateral consequences. The paper concludes by suggesting that an extension of the harm reduction framework developed specifically for drug policy can be applied usefully to making policy choices in controlling other illegal markets.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2515300123","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T19:09:16Z","timestamp":1786388956000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["The policy construction of illegal markets: Exploring variation, success, failure, and unintended consequences"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"123","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3609-9239","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Letizia","family":"Paoli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05f950310","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Criminal Law and Criminology, Faculty of Law and Criminology, KU Leuven","place":["Leuven, Belgium"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7809-0849","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter","family":"Reuter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/047s2c258","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"School of Public Policy, University of Maryland","place":["College Park"]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/047s2c258","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Criminology, University of Maryland","place":["College Park"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/9780521780339"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_2","volume-title":"The Routledge Handbook of White-Collar and Corporate Crime in Europe","author":"Ponsaers P.","year":"2015","unstructured":"P. Ponsaers, \u201cRegulation, governance and enforcement of white-collar crime in Europe: Special criminal law and inspectorates in Europe\u201d in The Routledge Handbook of White-Collar and Corporate Crime in Europe, J. van Erp, W. Huisman, G. V. Walle, Eds. (Routledge, 2015)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_2","volume-title":"The Limits of Criminal Law: Anglo-German Concepts and Principles","author":"Wohlers W.","year":"2021","unstructured":"W. Wohlers, \u201cCriminal law as a regulatory tool\u201d in The Limits of Criminal Law: Anglo-German Concepts and Principles, M. Dyson, B. Vogel, Eds. (Intersentia, 2021)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_2","volume-title":"Do labels still matter? Blurring boundaries between administrative and criminal law. The influence of the EU,","author":"Galli F.","year":"2014","unstructured":"F. Galli, A. Weyembergh, Eds., \u201cDo Label Still Matter? Blurring boundaries between administrative and criminal law\u201d in Do labels still matter? Blurring boundaries between administrative and criminal law. The influence of the EU, F. Galli, A. Weyembergh, Eds. (Editions de l\u2019Universit\u00e9 de Bruxelles, 2014)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_2","volume-title":"Do Label Still Matter? Blurring Boundaries between Administrative and Criminal Law. The Influence of The EU","author":"Bailleux A.","year":"2014","unstructured":"A. Bailleux \u201cThe fiftieth shade of grey. competition law, \u2018criministrative law\u2019 and fairly fair trials\u201d in Do Label Still Matter? Blurring Boundaries between Administrative and Criminal Law. The Influence of The EU, F. Galli, A. Weyembergh, Eds. (Editions de l\u2019Universit\u00e9 de Bruxelles, 2014)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bjc\/azaf070"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5040\/9781509932894"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_2","volume-title":"The Chinese Opium Wars","author":"Beeching J.","year":"1975","unstructured":"J. Beeching, The Chinese Opium Wars (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_2","volume-title":"The Rise and Decline of Cannabis Prohibition","author":"Bewley-Taylor D.","year":"2014","unstructured":"D. Bewley-Taylor, M. Jelsman, T. Blickman, The Rise and Decline of Cannabis Prohibition (Transnational Institute, 2014)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7249\/RR3140"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2512081123","article-title":"Illegal fishing and seafood markets","author":"Le Billon P.","year":"2026","unstructured":"P. Le Billon, U. Sumalia, J. Ladefoged, R. Smart, Illegal fishing and seafood markets. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. (2026).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_2","author":"Kilmer B.","year":"2026","unstructured":"B. Kilmer, Drug trafficking markets. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. (2026).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_2","volume-title":"Opinion How The Supreme Court Turned America into A Casino","author":"Lane C.","year":"2023","unstructured":"C. Lane, Opinion How The Supreme Court Turned America into A Casino (The Washington Post, 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_14_2","article-title":"The budding science of illegal markets","author":"Caulkins J. P.","year":"2026","unstructured":"J. P. Caulkins, The budding science of illegal markets. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. (2026).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_15_2","volume-title":"On Liberty","author":"Mill J.","year":"1859","unstructured":"J. Mill, On Liberty (Longman, Roberts, & Green Co., 1859)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_16_2","volume-title":"Legalize This!: The Case for Decriminalizing Drugs","author":"Husak D.","year":"2002","unstructured":"D. Husak, Legalize This!: The Case for Decriminalizing Drugs (Verso, 2002)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_17_2","volume-title":"Against Excess: Drug Policy for Results","author":"Kleiman M.","year":"1994","unstructured":"M. Kleiman, Against Excess: Drug Policy for Results (Basic Books, 1994)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_18_2","author":"Midgette G.","year":"2026","unstructured":"G. Midgette, M. Gore, Wildlife trafficking. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. (2026).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_19_2","unstructured":"Urban Institute Brookings Institution The Tax Policy Briefing Book (Tax Policy Center). https:\/\/taxpolicycenter.org\/briefing-book."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_20_2","article-title":"The illegal market for sex in the United States: What we know and don\u2019t know","volume":"123","author":"Shah M.","year":"2026","unstructured":"M. Shah, The illegal market for sex in the United States: What we know and don\u2019t know. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 123, e2512375122 (2026).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_21_2","first-page":"224","volume-title":"Reframing Prostitution: From Discourse to Description, from Moralisation to Normalisation?","author":"Aronowitz A.","year":"2014","unstructured":"A. Aronowitz, \u201cTo punish or not to punish: What works in the regulation of the prostitution market\u201d in Reframing Prostitution: From Discourse to Description, from Moralisation to Normalisation?, N. Persak, G. Vermeulen, Eds. (Maklu, 2014), pp. 224\u2013253."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195125092.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_23_2","unstructured":"M\u00e9decins Sans Fronti\u00e8res (MSF) \u201cCounterfeit\u201d confusion diverts action from drug quality (2011) https:\/\/msfaccess.org\/counterfeit-confusion-diverts-action-drug-quality [Accessed 23 December 2025]."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_24_2","volume-title":"A study on the public health and socioeconomic impact of substandard and falsified medical products","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2017","unstructured":"World Health Organization, A study on the public health and socioeconomic impact of substandard and falsified medical products (World Health Organization, 2017)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_25_2","unstructured":"U.S. Supreme Court Webb v. United States (1919). https:\/\/supreme.justia.com\/cases\/federal\/us\/249\/96\/."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203009796"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_27_2","volume-title":"Opium and The People: Opiate Use and Drug Control Policy in Nineteenth and Early-Twentieth Century","author":"Berridge V.","year":"1999","unstructured":"V. Berridge, Opium and The People: Opiate Use and Drug Control Policy in Nineteenth and Early-Twentieth Century (Free Association Books, 1999)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_28_2","unstructured":"European Union Drugs Agency (EUDA) Penalties for drug law offences at a glance (2024) https:\/\/www.euda.europa.eu\/publications\/topic-overviews\/content\/drug-law-penalties-at-a-glance_en [Accessed 23 December 2025]."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_29_2","volume-title":"Regulation of Prostitution in The European Union: Laws and Policies in Selected EU Member States","author":"B\u0105kowski P.","year":"2024","unstructured":"P. B\u0105kowski, M. Prpi\u0107, Regulation of Prostitution in The European Union: Laws and Policies in Selected EU Member States (European Parliamentary Research Service, 2024)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_30_2","volume-title":"Maine Becomes First State to Decriminalize Selling Sex","author":"Heal A.","year":"2023","unstructured":"A. Heal, Maine Becomes First State to Decriminalize Selling Sex (The Washington Post, 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_31_2","article-title":"Firearms trafficking","author":"Cook P.","year":"2026","unstructured":"P. Cook, R. Smart, Firearms trafficking. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. (2026).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_32_2","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Justice \u201cJoint statement\u2014Parts C and D. Definitions\u2014Trafficking\u2014Counterfeit marks\u201d in Criminal Resource Manual (Justice Manual) (1709) https:\/\/www.justice.gov\/archives\/jm\/criminal-resource-manual-1709-joint-statement-parts-c-and-d-definitions-trafficking-counterfeit."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_33_2","unstructured":"United Nations Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land Sea and Air supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (2000). https:\/\/treaties.un.org\/pages\/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XVIII-12-b&chapter=18."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-12658-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_35_2","volume-title":"Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora","author":"United Nations","year":"1973","unstructured":"United Nations, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES, 1973)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_36_2","first-page":"583","article-title":"Supply of monkeys for research is at a crisis point, U.S. government report concludes","volume":"380","author":"Grimm D.","year":"2023","unstructured":"D. Grimm, Supply of monkeys for research is at a crisis point, U.S. government report concludes. Science 380, 583 (2023).","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_37_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization 1 in 10 medical products in developing countries is substandard or falsified (2017) https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/28-11-2017-1-in-10-medical-products-in-developing-countries-is-substandard-or-falsified [Accessed 23 December 2025]."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_38_2","article-title":"Belgium Becomes First Country to Give Sex Workers Robust Labor Rights and Protections","author":"Kim J.","year":"2024","unstructured":"J. Kim, Belgium Becomes First Country to Give Sex Workers Robust Labor Rights and Protections. (NPR, 2024).","journal-title":"NPR,"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_39_2","unstructured":"R. Haverkamp Nijmeegse en Arnhemse tippelzones nog de enige twee in het land: magneet voor sekswerkers (2021) https:\/\/www.gld.nl\/nieuws\/7385714\/nijmeegse-en-arnhemse-tippelzones-nog-de-enige-twee-in-het-land-magneet-voor-sekswerkers [Accessed 23 December 2025]."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_40_2","unstructured":"E. Douglas Sex workers speak out against German prostitution law. DW (2021) https:\/\/www.dw.com\/en\/sex-workers-speak-out-against-german-prostitution-law\/a-59539574 [Accessed 23 December 2025]."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18356\/9789211065534"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_42_2","volume-title":"Alternatives to Punishment for Drug-Using Offenders","author":"EMCDDA","year":"2015","unstructured":"EMCDDA, Alternatives to Punishment for Drug-Using Offenders (European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2015)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_43_2","volume-title":"Drug Trafficking Penalties Across the European Union: A Survey of Expert Opinion","author":"EMCDDA","year":"2017","unstructured":"EMCDDA, Drug Trafficking Penalties Across the European Union: A Survey of Expert Opinion (European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2017)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_44_2","volume-title":"The Death Penalty for Drug Offenses: Global Overview 2023","author":"Harm Reduction International","year":"2024","unstructured":"Harm Reduction International, The Death Penalty for Drug Offenses: Global Overview 2023 (Harm Reduction International, 2024)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/735665"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-071811-145546"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2023.110177"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2512084122"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_49_2","author":"Ferwerda J.","year":"2026","unstructured":"J. Ferwerda, The money laundering market. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. (2026).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_50_2","first-page":"543","article-title":"India, pharmacy of the developing world: IP, trade and the access to medicine","volume":"49","author":"Descheemaeker S.","year":"2013","unstructured":"S. Descheemaeker, D. Geraets, India, pharmacy of the developing world: IP, trade and the access to medicine. Jura Falconis. 49, 543\u2013570 (2013).","journal-title":"Jura Falconis."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-2230.2009.00775.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_52_2","volume-title":"Report on the State of Effectiveness Compliance with FATF Standards","author":"Financial Action Task Force","year":"2022","unstructured":"Financial Action Task Force, Report on the State of Effectiveness Compliance with FATF Standards (FATF, 2022)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_53_2","volume-title":"Understanding the U.S","author":"National Research Council (NRC)","year":"2015","unstructured":"National Research Council (NRC), Understanding the U.S (Illicit Tobacco Market National Academy Press, 2015)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_54_2","unstructured":"U. Sumalia The cost of being apprehended fishing illegally. The University of British Columbia (2004) https:\/\/feru.oceans.ubc.ca\/2004\/05\/12\/the-cost-of-being-apprehended-fishing-illegally\/ [Accessed 2 January 2026]."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_55_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/670818"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_56_2","volume-title":"Singapore\u2019s War on Drugs: A Historical Overview","author":"Chok S.","year":"2017","unstructured":"S. Chok, Singapore\u2019s War on Drugs: A Historical Overview (National University of Singapore, 2017)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_57_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511754272"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/681551"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_59_2","volume-title":"The Gunning of America: Business and the Making of American Gun Culture","author":"Haag P.","year":"2016","unstructured":"P. Haag, The Gunning of America: Business and the Making of American Gun Culture (Oxford University Press, 2016)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_60_2","volume-title":"Firearms in the European Union","author":"European Comission","year":"2013","unstructured":"European Comission, Firearms in the European Union (European Comission, 2013)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_61_2","unstructured":"L. Bov\u00e9 Douane controleert 1 op de 42 containers in Antwerpen. De Tijd (2021) https:\/\/www.tijd.behttps\/\/www.tijd.be\/politiek-economie\/belgie\/algemeen\/douane-controleert-1-op-de-42-containers-in-antwerpen\/10324850.html [Accessed 23 December 2025]."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_62_2","article-title":"Counterfeit goods markets","author":"Kennedy J.","year":"2026","unstructured":"J. Kennedy, Counterfeit goods markets. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. (2026).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_63_2","first-page":"995","article-title":"Victimless crimes: The threshold question and beyond","volume":"52","author":"Winterscheid J.","year":"1977","unstructured":"J. Winterscheid, Victimless crimes: The threshold question and beyond. Notre Dame Law Rev. 52, 995 (1977).","journal-title":"Notre Dame Law Rev."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_64_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7591\/cornell\/9780801450181.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_65_2","volume-title":"The EU\u2013Turkey Deal, Five Years On: A Frayed and Controversial but Enduring Blueprint","author":"Terry K.","year":"2021","unstructured":"K. Terry, The EU\u2013Turkey Deal, Five Years On: A Frayed and Controversial but Enduring Blueprint (Migration Policy Institute, 2021)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_66_2","article-title":"Human smuggling","author":"Campana P.","year":"2026","unstructured":"P. Campana, Human smuggling. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. (2026).","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_67_2","volume-title":"Trade in Vicu\u00f1a: The Implications for Conservation and Rural Livelihoods","author":"Kasterine A.","year":"2018","unstructured":"A. Kasterine, G. Lichtenstein, Trade in Vicu\u00f1a: The Implications for Conservation and Rural Livelihoods (International Trade Center, 2018)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_68_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.adk4827"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_69_2","volume-title":"The Red List of Mammals of South Africa","author":"Selier J.","year":"2016","unstructured":"J. Selier, Y. Pretorius, M. Henley, \u201cA conservation assessment of Loxodonta Africana\u201d in The Red List of Mammals of South Africa, M. Child, L. Roxburgh, E. Linh, D. Romondo, H. Davies-Mostret, Eds. (SANBI and EWT, Swaziland and Lesotho, 2016)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_70_2","volume-title":"Security Council Resolution 1459","author":"United Nations Security Council","year":"2003","unstructured":"United Nations Security Council, Security Council Resolution 1459 (United Nations, 2003)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_71_2","unstructured":"European Commission Kimberley Process\u2014Fighting Blood Diamonds! (2006) https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/commission\/presscorner\/detail\/en\/memo_06_501 [Accessed 23 December 2025]."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_72_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.worlddev.2021.105786"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_73_2","unstructured":"Human Rights Watch Diamond trade still fuels human suffering. Human Rights Watch (2018) https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/news\/2018\/05\/10\/diamond-trade-still-fuels-human-suffering."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_74_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2005.01271.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_75_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198818014.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_76_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B. Kilmer Considering heroin-assisted treatment and supervised drug consumption sites in The United States (RAND 2018).","DOI":"10.7249\/RR2693"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_77_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199844425.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_78_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195322996.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_79_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2024.104498"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_80_2","volume-title":"European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments","author":"European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction","year":"2019","unstructured":"European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction, European Drug Report 2019: Trends and Developments (European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2019)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_81_2","volume-title":"Coerced Drug Treatment","author":"Freeman L.","year":"2011","unstructured":"L. Freeman , Coerced Drug Treatment (SAGE, 2011)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_82_2","unstructured":"W. Sawyer P. Wagner \u201cMass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2025\u201d in Prison Policy Initiative (2025) https:\/\/www.prisonpolicy.org\/reports\/pie2025.html [Accessed 23 December 2025]."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_83_2","volume-title":"Prisons and Prisoners in Europe 2022: Key Findings of The SPACE I Survey","author":"Aebi M. F.","year":"2023","unstructured":"M. F. Aebi, E. Cocco, L. Molnar, Prisons and Prisoners in Europe 2022: Key Findings of The SPACE I Survey (UNILCRIM, 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_84_2","volume-title":"Three Decades of Crime and Criminal Justice Statistics in Europe","author":"Aebi M. F.","year":"2025","unstructured":"M. F. Aebi, E. Cocco, Three Decades of Crime and Criminal Justice Statistics in Europe (Council of Europe\/European Union, 2025)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_85_2","volume-title":"Narcotic Culture: A History of Drugs in China","author":"Dik\u00f6tter F.","year":"2004","unstructured":"F. Dik\u00f6tter, L. Laaman, Z. Xun, Narcotic Culture: A History of Drugs in China (University of Chicago Press, 2004)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_86_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18356\/9789211594850"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_87_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/add.16519"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_88_2","volume-title":"As America\u2019s Marijuana Use Grows, So Do the Risks","author":"Twohey M.","year":"2025","unstructured":"M. Twohey, D. Ivory, C. Kessler, As America\u2019s Marijuana Use Grows, So Do the Risks (The New York Times, 2025)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_89_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization \u201cTobacco\u201d in World Health Organization (2025) https:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/tobacco [Accessed 23 December 2025]."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_90_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc2703"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_91_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-6478.2008.00444.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_92_2","volume-title":"Offense to Others: The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law","author":"Feinberg J.","year":"1985","unstructured":"J. Feinberg, Offense to Others: The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law (Oxford University Press, 1985)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_93_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199534777.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_94_2","unstructured":"R. A. Duff S. Marshall \u201cRemote Harms\u2019 and the Two Harm Principles\u201d in Liberal Criminal Theory: Essays for Andreas von Hirsch A. P. Simester A. du Bois-Pedain U. Neumann Eds. (Hart 2014)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_95_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/498918"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_96_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/674872"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_97_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/467745"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_98_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.22459\/MF.2021"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_99_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/592812"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_100_2","volume-title":"The Idea of Justice","author":"Sen A.","year":"2009","unstructured":"A. Sen, The Idea of Justice (Harvard University Press, 2009)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_101_2","volume-title":"Sealing The Borders: The Effects of Increased Military Participation in Drug Interdiction","author":"Henry D.","year":"1988","unstructured":"D. Henry, \u201cThe effect of interdiction on drug exports\u201d in Sealing The Borders: The Effects of Increased Military Participation in Drug Interdiction, P. Reuter, G. Crawford, J. Cave, Eds. (RAND Corporation, 1988)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_102_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198758174.001.0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_103_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2011.04.007"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_104_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2023.104108"}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1073\/pnas.2515300123","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1073\/pnas.2515300123","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T19:09:53Z","timestamp":1786388993000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/10.1073\/pnas.2515300123"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]]},"references-count":104,"journal-issue":{"issue":"33","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1073\/pnas.2515300123"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.2515300123","relation":{},"ISSN":["0027-8424","1091-6490"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0027-8424","type":"print"},{"value":"1091-6490","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2026-08-10","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"e2515300123"}}