{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]],"date-time":"2026-06-10T14:53:31Z","timestamp":1781103211023,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]],"date-time":"2026-05-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778457600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000268","name":"UKRI | Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BB\/V000667\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BB\/V000667\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000268","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Emerging diseases can have devastating consequences for wild species, with long-term effects depending on the ability of the host to evolve resistance. Here, we show that major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes provided standing genetic variation that enabled rabbits to mount a rapid evolutionary response to the myxoma virus pandemic that began in the 1950s. Using historical and modern specimens starting in 1865 and spanning the pandemic, we found strong parallel shifts in MHC-I allele frequencies across Australia, Britain, and France, alongside population-specific signals. These evolutionary shifts are predicted to alter the peptides presented to T cells. Our results provide evidence that MHC-I is under strong selection in natural populations during a pandemic and that the high polymorphism of MHC may have contributed to the recovery of these populations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2532064123","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]],"date-time":"2026-05-11T19:10:31Z","timestamp":1778526631000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["MHC-I diversity enables rapid adaptation during a viral pandemic in wild rabbit populations"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"123","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8253-4951","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yexin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge","place":["Cambridge, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonathan P.","family":"Day","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge","place":["Cambridge, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marina","family":"Lirintzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge","place":["Cambridge, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiayi","family":"Ji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London","place":["London, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Clive A.","family":"Tregaskes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge","place":["Cambridge, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9882-7775","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel","family":"Carneiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o em Biodiversidade e Recursos Gen\u00e9ticos, InBIO Laborat\u00f3rio Associado, Universidade do Porto","place":["Vair\u00e3o, Portugal"]},{"name":"BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o em Biodiversidade e Recursos Gen\u00e9ticos, InBIO Laborat\u00f3rio Associado, Universidade do Porto","place":["Vair\u00e3o, Portugal"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6138-9134","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joel M.","family":"Alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge","place":["Cambridge, United Kingdom"]},{"name":"Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o em Biodiversidade e Recursos Gen\u00e9ticos, InBIO Laborat\u00f3rio Associado, Universidade do Porto","place":["Vair\u00e3o, Portugal"]},{"name":"BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, Centro de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o em Biodiversidade e Recursos Gen\u00e9ticos, InBIO Laborat\u00f3rio Associado, Universidade do Porto","place":["Vair\u00e3o, Portugal"]},{"name":"Palaeogenomics and Bio-Archaeology Research Network, School of Archaeology, University of Oxford","place":["Oxford, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2971-8406","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tanja","family":"Strive","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Health and Biosecurity Business Unit, Acton","place":["Australian Capital Territory, Australia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7216-8422","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jim","family":"Kaufman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh","place":["Edinburgh, United Kingdom"]},{"name":"Department of Immunobiology, Yale University","place":["New Haven"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7470-8157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francis M.","family":"Jiggins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge","place":["Cambridge, United Kingdom"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.13845"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2007.09.008"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tig.2020.01.008"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/iji.12490"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1069660"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0014-3820.2002.tb00116.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms1632"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.283.5408.1748"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nm893"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature07746"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2005.04.050"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1095-8649.2010.02819.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/bies.201700075"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-82449-w"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41559-025-02837-x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_16_2","volume-title":"Myxomatosis","author":"Fenner F.","year":"1965","unstructured":"F. Fenner, F. N. Ratcliffe, Myxomatosis (Cambridge University Press, 1965)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1079\/9780851993232.0000"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2012.01.009"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau7285"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41439-022-00226-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nri1635"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1007567"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/pro.5560060601"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-21983-x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2021.09.007"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-021-24401-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1074-7613(01)00179-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2005.01.005"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0003247"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/353321a0"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-2836(91)90567-P"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.148.5.1532"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1042\/BST20210410"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1253714"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.80.1.242"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btu548"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2122734119"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msab294"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_39_2","unstructured":"K. Myers \u201cThe rabbit in Australia\u201d in Dynamics of Numbers in Populations: Proceedings of the Advanced Study Institute Oosterbeek 1970 P. J. den Boer G. R. Gradwell Eds. (PUDOC Wageningen 1971) pp. 478\u2013506."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_40_2","first-page":"85","article-title":"The rabbit in England","volume":"5","author":"Veale E. M.","year":"1957","unstructured":"E. M. Veale, The rabbit in England. Agric. Hist. Rev. 5, 85\u201390 (1957).","journal-title":"Agric. Hist. Rev."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/319501"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00142046"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1297-9716-43-12"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.10.2.549"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_45_2","first-page":"611","article-title":"Rabbit haemorrhagic disease in the United Kingdom","volume":"133","author":"Fuller H. E.","year":"1993","unstructured":"H. E. Fuller, D. Chasey, M. H. Lucas, J. C. Gibbens, Rabbit haemorrhagic disease in the United Kingdom. Vet. Rec. 133, 611\u2013613 (1993).","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msx142"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-03857-x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-5347(90)90207-T"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02918202"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_50_2","first-page":"255","article-title":"The development of genetic resistance to myxomatosis in wild rabbits in Britain","volume":"92","author":"Ross J.","year":"1984","unstructured":"J. Ross, M. F. Sanders, The development of genetic resistance to myxomatosis in wild rabbits in Britain. Epidemiol. Infect. 92, 255\u2013261 (1984).","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_51_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198576112.003.0007"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_52_2","first-page":"288","article-title":"Studies in the epidemiology of infectious myxomatosis of rabbits","volume":"56","author":"Marshall I. D.","year":"1958","unstructured":"I. D. Marshall, F. Fenner, Studies in the epidemiology of infectious myxomatosis of rabbits. Epidemiol. Infect. 56, 288\u2013302 (1958).","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_53_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.k2105"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_54_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268811002743"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_55_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1710336114"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_56_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep33334"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_57_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/vim.2016.0095"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3001057"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_59_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2315985121"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_60_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.05345"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_61_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/bty191"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_62_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.4235"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_63_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/cmb.2014.0157"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_64_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bib\/bbs017"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_65_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/bts635"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_66_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btp616"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_67_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14806\/ej.17.1.200"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_68_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btg412"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_69_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btp696"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_70_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btr330"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_71_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00396-20"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_72_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msu300"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_73_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00251-005-0016-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_74_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkf436"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_75_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.12628"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_76_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bioinformatics\/btw670"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_77_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v033.i09"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_78_2","unstructured":"Y. Zhang . MHC-I diversity enables rapid adaptation during a viral pandemic in wild rabbit populations. NCBI Sequence Read Archive (SRA). https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/bioproject\/PRJNA1027777. Deposited 13 October 2023."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_79_2","unstructured":"Y. Zhang Rabbit MHC-I: v3. Zenodo. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5281\/zenodo.19226480. Deposited 25 March 2026."}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1073\/pnas.2532064123","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]],"date-time":"2026-05-16T19:11:34Z","timestamp":1778958694000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/10.1073\/pnas.2532064123"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]]},"references-count":79,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1073\/pnas.2532064123"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.2532064123","relation":{},"ISSN":["0027-8424","1091-6490"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0027-8424","type":"print"},{"value":"1091-6490","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2025-11-13","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-04-14","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-05-11","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"e2532064123"}}