{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T17:42:04Z","timestamp":1792690924841,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","issue":"43","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1792627200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Mars Incorporated","award":["Michelmore 445042-47776"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Michelmore 445042-47776"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Aflatoxins produced by some species of\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Aspergillus<\/jats:italic>\n                    pose a significant threat to global food safety, because they contaminate a variety of crops including maize. In this study, we used host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) to reduce aflatoxin accumulation in maize upon infection with\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Aspergillus flavus<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Aspergillus parasiticus<\/jats:italic>\n                    . Two RNAi constructs were designed and introduced into maize, one targeting two essential fungal genes involved in ergosterol biosynthesis (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">CYP51A<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">CYP51B<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) and the other targeting three aflatoxin biosynthesis genes (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">AflC<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">AflD<\/jats:italic>\n                    , and\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">AflR<\/jats:italic>\n                    ). The presence of RNAi transgenes was confirmed in 17 and 14 independent lines possessing the\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">CYP51A\/CYP51B<\/jats:italic>\n                    RNAi construct and the\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">AflC\/AflD\/AflR<\/jats:italic>\n                    RNAi construct, respectively. Most transgenic lines had single-locus integrations and one or two copies of the transgene. Transgene expression varied considerably among the lines. Small RNA sequencing confirmed the production of siRNAs from the HIGS trigger sequences. Levels of\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">CYP51A<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">AflC<\/jats:italic>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">AflD,<\/jats:italic>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">AflR<\/jats:italic>\n                    transcripts in\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Aspergillus<\/jats:italic>\n                    spp. were successfully decreased upon infection of transgenic maize. However, significant reduction in the level of\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">CYP51B<\/jats:italic>\n                    transcripts was not achieved and the\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">CYP51A\/CYP51B<\/jats:italic>\n                    RNAi transgene had no discernible effect on fungal growth in infected maize. In contrast, we observed significant reductions in aflatoxin accumulation in four\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">AflC\/AflD\/AflR<\/jats:italic>\n                    RNAi transgenic lines infected with\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">A. flavus<\/jats:italic>\n                    and in two transgenic lines infected with\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">A. parasiticus<\/jats:italic>\n                    . Notably, one\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">AflC\/AflD\/AflR<\/jats:italic>\n                    transgenic line exhibited minimal aflatoxin contamination upon kernel infection with\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">A. parasiticus<\/jats:italic>\n                    . These results demonstrate the potential of HIGS to reduce aflatoxin production in mature corn kernels.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2620406123","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T16:59:46Z","timestamp":1792688386000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Reduction of aflatoxin contamination in maize kernels mediated by host-induced gene silencing"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"123","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9083-7979","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ali","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05rrcem69","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Genome Center, University of California","place":["Davis"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Keri","family":"Cavanaugh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05rrcem69","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Genome Center, University of California","place":["Davis"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4669-6632","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patricia","family":"Baldrich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05rrcem69","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Genome Center, University of California","place":["Davis"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ioannis","family":"Stergiopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05rrcem69","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Plant Pathology, University of California","place":["Davis"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7512-592X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Richard","family":"Michelmore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05rrcem69","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Genome Center, University of California","place":["Davis"]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05rrcem69","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Plant Sciences, University of California","place":["Davis"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_1_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/80.5.1106"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.16.3.497-516.2003"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-phyto-072910-095221"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.7998"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/carcin\/bgp264"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqaa397"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jspr.2006.11.004"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2016.02170"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins17070331"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/foods13121920"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/pbi.12226"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1094\/MPMI-18-0539"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/pbi.12307"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1306373110"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/pbi.12158"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/pbi.12352"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1602382"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00299-015-1794-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_19_2","article-title":"RNAi-mediated control of aflatoxins in peanut: Method to analyze mycotoxin production and transgene expression in the peanut\/Aspergillus pathosystem","volume":"106","author":"Arias R. S.","year":"2015","unstructured":"R. S. Arias, P. M. Dang, V. S. Sobolev, RNAi-mediated control of aflatoxins in peanut: Method to analyze mycotoxin production and transgene expression in the peanut\/Aspergillus pathosystem. J. Vis. Exp. 106, e53398 (2015).","journal-title":"J. Vis. Exp."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00425-018-2875-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.00754"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2014.00384"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins12030150"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins3060647"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.0030024"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.00735-20"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1079\/cabireviews.2025.0062"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-92557-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plantsci.2016.12.013"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_30_2","first-page":"905","article-title":"Peanuts that keep aflatoxin at bay: A threshold that matters","volume":"15","author":"Sharma K. K.","year":"2017","unstructured":"K. K. Sharma , Peanuts that keep aflatoxin at bay: A threshold that matters. Plant Biotechnol. J. 15, 905\u2013918 (2017).","journal-title":"Plant Biotechnol. J."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm4085"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_32_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1104\/pp.19.00570"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_33_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.10452"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_34_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nplants.2016.207"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_35_2","first-page":"353","article-title":"HIGS: Host-induced gene silencing in barley powdery mildew reveals a class of ribonuclease-like effectors","volume":"23","author":"Nowara D.","year":"2010","unstructured":"D. Nowara , HIGS: Host-induced gene silencing in barley powdery mildew reveals a class of ribonuclease-like effectors. Mol. Plant Microbe Interact. 23, 353\u2013362 (2010).","journal-title":"Mol. Plant Microbe Interact."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bfgp\/elp052"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-9525(00)02166-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-arplant-050213-035728"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tplants.2011.08.006"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm3611"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrg2936"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkp106"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_43_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt1404"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ng2135"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_45_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-biophys-083012-130404"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_46_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/plcell\/koac165"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1005901"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_48_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nplants.2016.151"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0126185"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_50_2","unstructured":"A. Ahmed K. Cavanaugh P. Baldrich I. Stergiopoulos R. Michelmore Reduction of aflatoxin contamination in maize kernels achieved by host-induced gene silencing (HIGS). NCBI Gene Expression Omnibus. https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/geo\/query\/acc.cgi?acc=GSE328999. Deposited 24 April 2026."}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1073\/pnas.2620406123","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T17:00:25Z","timestamp":1792688425000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/10.1073\/pnas.2620406123"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"43","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1073\/pnas.2620406123"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.2620406123","relation":{},"ISSN":["0027-8424","1091-6490"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0027-8424","type":"print"},{"value":"1091-6490","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2026-06-08","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-09-15","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-10-22","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"e2620406123"}}