{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]],"date-time":"2026-03-21T03:49:34Z","timestamp":1774064974577,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences","issue":"33","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,2]],"date-time":"2022-02-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643760000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":184,"URL":"https:\/\/www.pnas.org\/site\/aboutpnas\/licenses.xhtml"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003030","name":"Government of Catalonia | Ag\u00e8ncia de Gesti\u00f3 d'Ajuts Universitaris i de Recerca","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2017 BP-A 00046"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017 BP-A 00046"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003030","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003030","name":"Government of Catalonia | Ag\u00e8ncia de Gesti\u00f3 d'Ajuts Universitaris i de Recerca","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2017 SGR 00011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017 SGR 00011"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003030","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006280","name":"Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnolog\u00eda","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["HAR2017- 86509-P"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HAR2017- 86509-P"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006280","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006280","name":"Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnolog\u00eda","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["HAR2017-87324-P"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HAR2017-87324-P"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006280","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001659","name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["57444011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["57444011"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001659","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005416","name":"Norges Forskningsr\u00e5d","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["262618"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["262618"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005416","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001665","name":"Agence Nationale de la Recherche","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ANR-10-LABX-52"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ANR-10-LABX-52"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001665","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,17]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Significance<\/jats:title><jats:p>The emergence of symbolic behavior in our genus is a controversial issue. The dating of paintings in three caves from the Iberian Peninsula supports the view that Neanderthals developed a form of cave art more than 20,000 years before the emergence of anatomical modernity in Europe. In this study, we confirm that the paintings on a large speleothem from one of these sites, Cueva de Ardales, were human made, and we show that the pigments do not come from the outcrops of colorant material known inside the cave. Variations in the composition of the paint correspond to differences in the age of the paintings, supporting the hypothesis that Neanderthals used the speleothems symbolically over an extended time span.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2021495118","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,2]],"date-time":"2021-08-02T20:36:41Z","timestamp":1627936601000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":43,"title":["The symbolic role of the underground world among Middle Paleolithic Neanderthals"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"118","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8396-9487","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Africa","family":"Pitarch Mart\u00ed","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Seminari d'Estudis i Recerques Prehist\u00f2riques, Facultat de Geograf\u00eda i Hist\u00f2ria, Departament d'Hist\u00f2ria i Arqueologia, Universitat de Barcelona, 08001 Barcelona, Spain;"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5937-3061","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Zilh\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Seminari d'Estudis i Recerques Prehist\u00f2riques, Facultat de Geograf\u00eda i Hist\u00f2ria, Departament d'Hist\u00f2ria i Arqueologia, Universitat de Barcelona, 08001 Barcelona, Spain;"},{"name":"Instituci\u00f3 Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avan\u00e7ats, 08010 Barcelona, Spain;"},{"name":"Centro de Arqueologia da Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Letras, Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1600-214 Lisboa, Portugal;"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2422-3079","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesco","family":"d\u2019Errico","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UMR 5199 CNRS, De la Pr\u00e9histoire \u00e0 l\u2019Actuel: Culture, Environnement, et Anthropologie, University of Bordeaux, B\u00e2timent B18, 33615 Pessac, France;"},{"name":"SFF Centre for Early Sapiens Behaviour, University of Bergen, 5020 Bergen, Norway;"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6408-7385","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro","family":"Cantalejo-Duarte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de la Prehistoria\/Cueva de Ardales, 29550 Ardales, M\u00e1laga, Spain;"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3892-763X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Salvador","family":"Dom\u00ednguez-Bella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidad de Geoarqueolog\u00eda y Arqueometr\u00eda aplicada al Patrimonio Hist\u00f3rico-Art\u00edstico y Monumental, Departamento de Ciencias de la Tierra, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de C\u00e1diz, Campus Rio San Pedro, Puerto Real, 11510 C\u00e1diz, Spain;"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7089-1425","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Josep M.","family":"Fullola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Seminari d'Estudis i Recerques Prehist\u00f2riques, Facultat de Geograf\u00eda i Hist\u00f2ria, Departament d'Hist\u00f2ria i Arqueologia, Universitat de Barcelona, 08001 Barcelona, Spain;"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5270-657X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gerd C.","family":"Weniger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Prehistoric Archaeology, University of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany;"},{"name":"Neanderthal Museum, 40822 Mettmann, Germany;"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6042-2446","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"Ramos-Mu\u00f1oz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Historia, Geograf\u00eda y Filosof\u00eda, Universidad de C\u00e1diz, Avenida G\u00f3mez Ulla s\/n, 11003 C\u00e1diz, Spain"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_1_2","volume-title":"Les Grottes orn\u00e9es de la Pr\u00e9histoire, Nouveaux Regards","author":"Lorblanchet M.","year":"1995","unstructured":"M. Lorblanchet, Les Grottes orn\u00e9es de la Pr\u00e9histoire, Nouveaux Regards (\u00c9ditions Errance, 1995)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_2","volume-title":"The First Artists: In Search of the World\u2019s Oldest Art","author":"Lorblanchet M.","year":"2017","unstructured":"M. Lorblanchet, P. Bahn, The First Artists: In Search of the World\u2019s Oldest Art (Thames and Hudson, 2017)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13962"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0514-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3406\/bspf.2005.13330"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4000\/nda.5236"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_2","first-page":"17","volume-title":"Actuaciones arqueol\u00f3gicas en Cantabria 2004-2011","author":"Arias P.","year":"2016","unstructured":"P. Arias, R. Onta\u00f1\u00f3n, \u201cInvestigaciones en la Zona Arqueol\u00f3gica de La Garma (Omo\u00f1o, Ribamont\u00e1n al Mar), 2004-2011\u201d in Actuaciones arqueol\u00f3gicas en Cantabria 2004-2011, G. Sanz, Ed. (Consejer\u00eda de Educaci\u00f3n, Cultura y Deporte, Gobierno de Cantabria, 2016), pp. 17\u201327."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quaint.2016.01.052"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1179\/096576697800703601","article-title":"The rock art of the C\u00f4a valley (Portugal) and its archaeological context: First results of current research","volume":"5","author":"Zilh\u00e3o J.","year":"1997","unstructured":"J. Zilh\u00e3o ., The rock art of the C\u00f4a valley (Portugal) and its archaeological context: First results of current research. J. Europ. Arch. 5, 7\u201349 (1997).","journal-title":"J. Europ. Arch."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2010.07.033"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2011.10.011"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jasrep.2019.102120"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15184\/aqy.2019.36"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s41982-020-00065-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature13422"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-018-0679-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-019-1806-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1219957"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_19_2","first-page":"135","article-title":"The chronology of hand stencils in European Palaeolithic rock art: Implications of new U-series results from El Castillo Cave (Cantabria, Spain)","volume":"93","author":"Garc\u00eda-Diez M.","year":"2015","unstructured":"M. Garc\u00eda-Diez ., The chronology of hand stencils in European Palaeolithic rock art: Implications of new U-series results from El Castillo Cave (Cantabria, Spain). J. Anthropol. Sci. 93, 135\u2013152 (2015).","journal-title":"J. Anthropol. Sci."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aap7778"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abd4648"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/978-4-431-54511-8_3","volume-title":"Dynamics of Learning in Neanderthals and Modern Humans","author":"Zilh\u00e3o J.","year":"2013","unstructured":"J. Zilh\u00e3o, \u201cNeandertal-modern human contact in Western Eurasia: Issues of dating, taxonomy, and cultural associations\u201d in Dynamics of Learning in Neanderthals and Modern Humans, T. Akazawa, Y. Nishiaki, K. Aoki, Eds. (Springer, 2013), vol. 1, pp. 21\u201357."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2018.08.004"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41559-018-0540-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_25_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau1371"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_26_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2019.102640"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_27_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2020.105120"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_28_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41559-018-0598-z"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_29_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aau1736"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_30_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2019.102644"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_31_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhevol.2020.102810"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_32_2","first-page":"239","article-title":"Nouvelles cavernes orn\u00e9es pal\u00e9olithiques dans la province de M\u00e1laga","author":"Breuil H.","year":"1921","unstructured":"H. Breuil, Nouvelles cavernes orn\u00e9es pal\u00e9olithiques dans la province de M\u00e1laga. Anthropologie XXXI, 239\u2013253 (1921).","journal-title":"Anthropologie"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_33_2","volume-title":"La cueva de Ardales: Arte prehist\u00f3rico y ocupaci\u00f3n en el paleol\u00edtico superior: Estudios, 1985-2005","author":"Cantalejo P.","year":"2006","unstructured":"P. Cantalejo ., La cueva de Ardales: Arte prehist\u00f3rico y ocupaci\u00f3n en el paleol\u00edtico superior: Estudios, 1985-2005 (Diputaci\u00f3n Provincial de M\u00e1laga, 2006)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_34_2","unstructured":"J. Ramos . \u201cThe archaeological context of early rock art in Cueva Ardales (Spain).\u201d PESHE7: 8th Annual Meeting of the European Society for the Study of Human Evolution (Faro Portugal 2018) pp. 202."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_35_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/ast.2010.0562"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_36_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0016756814000491"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_37_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-53564-w"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_38_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118684986"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_39_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/08120090500507362"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_40_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2016.03.007"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_41_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.quaint.2016.08.043"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_42_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3889007"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_43_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"Rock paintings of the Worora and their mythological interpretation","volume":"16","author":"Love J. R. B.","year":"1930","unstructured":"J. R. B. Love, Rock paintings of the Worora and their mythological interpretation. J. R. Soc. West. Aust. 16, 1\u201324 (1930).","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. West. Aust."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_44_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1834-4461.1930.tb01649.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_45_2","volume-title":"The Art of the Fifth Continent\u2014Australia","author":"Lommel A.","year":"1959","unstructured":"A. Lommel, K. Lommel, The Art of the Fifth Continent\u2014Australia (Staatliches Museum fur Volkerkunde, 1959)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_46_2","volume-title":"The Art of the Wandjina","author":"Crawford I. M.","year":"1968","unstructured":"I. M. Crawford, The Art of the Wandjina (Oxford University Press, 1968)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_47_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0003598X00075086"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_48_2","first-page":"22","article-title":"Painting and repainting in the West Kimberley","volume":"1","author":"O\u2019Connor S.","year":"2008","unstructured":"S. O\u2019Connor, A. Barham, D. Woolagoodja, Painting and repainting in the West Kimberley. Aust. Aborig. Stud. 1, 22\u201338 (2008).","journal-title":"Aust. Aborig. Stud."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_49_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00934690.2019.1698883"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_50_2","unstructured":"I. Domingo \u201cT\u00e9cnica y ejecuci\u00f3n de la figura en el arte rupestre levantino. Hacia una definici\u00f3n actualizada del concepto de estilo: Validez y limitaciones \u201d PhD thesis Universitat de Val\u00e8ncia Val\u00e8ncia Spain (2005)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_51_2","first-page":"55","volume-title":"The Levantine Question. La cuesti\u00f3n levantina","author":"Vi\u00f1as Vallverd\u00fa R.","year":"2012","unstructured":"R. Vi\u00f1as Vallverd\u00fa, \u201cLas superposiciones en el arte rupestre levantino: Antiguas propuestas y nuevas evidencias para un per\u00edodo de reflexi\u00f3n\u201d in The Levantine Question. La cuesti\u00f3n levantina, J. J. Garc\u00eda Arranz, H. Collado Giraldo, G. H. Nash, Eds. (Archeolingua, 2012), pp. 55\u201380."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_52_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jas.2014.09.017"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_53_2","first-page":"191","volume-title":"Los abrigos VII, VIII, IX de Les Coves de la Saltadora. Les Coves de Vinroma, Castello","author":"Rold\u00e1n C.","year":"2007","unstructured":"C. Rold\u00e1n ., \u201cAn\u00e1lisis in-situ de pigmentos de las pinturas rupestres de los abrigos VII, VIII y IX de La Saltadora mediante fluorescencia de rayos X\u201d in Los abrigos VII, VIII, IX de Les Coves de la Saltadora. Les Coves de Vinroma, Castello, I. Domingo, E. L\u00f3pez, V. Villaverde, R. Mart\u00ednez, Eds. (Monograf\u00edas del Instituto de Arte Rupestre 2, Generalitat Valenciana, 2007), pp. 191\u2013205."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_54_2","first-page":"71","article-title":"Un ejemplo de bicrom\u00eda en el arte levantino del Barranco Segovia (Letur, Albacete)","volume":"64","author":"Mateo M. A.","year":"2019","unstructured":"M. A. Mateo, Un ejemplo de bicrom\u00eda en el arte levantino del Barranco Segovia (Letur, Albacete). AL-BASIT 64, 71\u201388 (2019).","journal-title":"AL-BASIT"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_55_2","volume-title":"Rock Art of the Spanish Levant","author":"Beltr\u00e1n Mart\u00ednez A.","year":"1982","unstructured":"A. Beltr\u00e1n Mart\u00ednez, Rock Art of the Spanish Levant (Cambridge University Press, 1982)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_56_2","volume-title":"Las pinturas rupestres de Albarrac\u00edn","author":"Pi\u00f1\u00f3n F.","year":"1982","unstructured":"F. Pi\u00f1\u00f3n, Las pinturas rupestres de Albarrac\u00edn (Centro Investig. y Museo Altamira, Teruel, 1982)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_57_2","first-page":"163","article-title":"La figura humana en el arte levantino aragon\u00e9s","volume":"4","author":"Utrilla P.","year":"2007","unstructured":"P. Utrilla, M. Bea, La figura humana en el arte levantino aragon\u00e9s. Cuadernos de Arte Rupestre 4, 163\u2013205 (2007).","journal-title":"Cuadernos de Arte Rupestre"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_58_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1411529111"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_59_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D. Vialou L'Art des grottes en Ari\u00e8ge magdal\u00e9nienne XXIIe Suppl. Gallia Pr\u00e9histoire (CNRS 1986).","DOI":"10.3406\/galip.1986.2542"}],"container-title":["Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/www.pnas.org\/syndication\/doi\/10.1073\/pnas.2021495118","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1073\/pnas.2021495118","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,5]],"date-time":"2024-09-05T17:34:25Z","timestamp":1725557665000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pnas.org\/doi\/full\/10.1073\/pnas.2021495118"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,2]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"33","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,17]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1073\/pnas.2021495118"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.2021495118","relation":{},"ISSN":["0027-8424","1091-6490"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0027-8424","type":"print"},{"value":"1091-6490","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,2]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2021-08-02","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"e2021495118"}}