{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T19:38:39Z","timestamp":1793043519991,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"National Academy of Sciences","issue":"45","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1792972800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.pnas.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>With questions that persist for centuries, art attribution is a complex detective effort that shapes cultural identity. Our goal is to complement human expertise, providing statistical and visual arguments that shed new light on discussions about great masters like Rembrandt and beyond, with long-term implications for art analysis and human\u2013AI collaboration. We present an AI-driven explainable approach to assist painting attribution with up to 97.9% recall, 95.8% accuracy when highly confident, and methods that identify the most relevant areas. This work supports human\u2013AI collaboration by incorporating expert guidance, expanding the outputs with explainable visualizations, tailoring settings to users\u2019 needs, thorough calibrations to avoid overconfidence, and building a dataset that balances quality with quantity and focuses on comparable artists like a master\u2019s pupils and teachers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2626989123","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T19:06:31Z","timestamp":1793041591000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.cm10313","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Rembrandt through the eyes of the machine: Toward explainable Human\u2013AI collaboration in painting attribution"],"prefix":"10.1073","volume":"123","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9266-8950","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andr\u00e9s","family":"Arias-Rosales","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05x2bcf33","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University","place":["Pittsburgh"]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03y3y9v44","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"School of Applied Sciences and Engineering, Design Engineering Research Group, Universidad EAFIT","place":["Medell\u00edn"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"suffix":"Jr.","given":"Arthur K.","family":"Wheelock","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/047s2c258","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"College of Arts and Humanities, University of Maryland","place":["College Park"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J. Kenneth","family":"Moritz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Stonewood Capital","place":["Pittsburgh"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Philip R.","family":"LeDuc","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05x2bcf33","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University","place":["Pittsburgh"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3935-9219","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jonathan","family":"Cagan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05x2bcf33","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University","place":["Pittsburgh"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_1_2","unstructured":"S. Magazine. \u201cPainting attributed to rembrandt found tucked away Inside an attic in Maine.\u201d 2024. https:\/\/www.smithsonianmag.com\/smart-news\/painting-attributed-to-rembrandt-found-tucked-away-inside-an-attic-in-maine-180985036\/. Accessed 13 February 2025."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_2","unstructured":"A. K. Wheelock Jr. \u201cRembrandt as universal artist\u201d in The Leiden Collection Catalogue A. K. Wheelock Jr. E. Nogrady C. V. Cauwenberge Eds. (The Leiden Collection New York NY ed. 4 2024) Rewritten by A. K. Wheelock Jr."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_2","unstructured":"N. B\u00fcttner On AI and Connoisseurship in CODART Features: Museum Affairs (CODART 2023)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-019-01794-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_2","unstructured":"A. K. Wheelock Jr. \u201cIssues of attribution in the rembrandt workshop\u201d in Dutch Paintings of the Seventeenth Century (NGA Online Editions Washington DC 2014)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_2","volume-title":"Rembrandt: The Painter at Work","author":"Van de Wetering E.","year":"2000","unstructured":"E. Van de Wetering, Rembrandt: The Painter at Work (University of California Press, 2000)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_2","unstructured":"M. Franken J. van der Veen \u201cThe signing of paintings by rembrandt and his contemporaries\u201d in The Leiden Collection Catalogue A. K. Wheelock Jr. E. Nogrady C. Van Cauwenberge Eds. (The Leiden Collection New York NY ed. 4th 2024) Rewritten by A. K. Wheelock Jr."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/pnasnexus\/pgae052"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-023-03604-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A. Elgammal B. Liu D. Kim M. Elhoseiny M. Mazzone \u201cThe shape of art history in the eyes of the machine\u201d in Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (2018) vol. 32.","DOI":"10.1609\/aaai.v32i1.11894"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"X. Shen A. A. Efros M. Aubry \u201cDiscovering visual patterns in art collections with spatially-consistent feature learning\u201d in Proceedings of the The IEEE\/CVF Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Conference (2019) pp. 9278\u20139287.","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR.2019.00950"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A. Elgammal Y. Kang M. Den Leeuw \u201cPicasso Matisse or a fake? Automated analysis of drawings at the stroke level for attribution and authentication\u201d in Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (2018) vol. 32.","DOI":"10.1609\/aaai.v32i1.11313"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_2","unstructured":"N. Viswanathan \u201cArtist identification with convolutional neural networks\u201d (Standford193CS231N Report 1 2017)."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_14_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"Original or pupil? Possible applications of artificial intelligence in attribution issues using the example of the rembrandt research project.","volume":"2023","author":"Reuter W.","year":"2023","unstructured":"W. Reuter, Original or pupil? Possible applications of artificial intelligence in attribution issues using the example of the rembrandt research project. Kunstgeschichte: Open Peer Rev. J. 2023, 1\u201347 (2023).","journal-title":"Kunstgeschichte: Open Peer Rev. J."},{"key":"e_1_3_4_15_2","first-page":"1764606","article-title":"Big transfer learning for fine art classification","volume":"2022","author":"Zhao W.","year":"2022","unstructured":"W. Zhao, W. Jiang, X. Qiu, Big transfer learning for fine art classification. Comput. Intell. Neurosci. 2022, 1764606 (2022).","journal-title":"Comput. Intell. 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