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Panic attacks are viewed as central to the development of these disorders, and individual cognitive frameworks contribute to the manner in which a patient's symptoms evolve. An apparent though unclear relation to depressive states is described. Substance abuse may also be a consequence of recurrent panic attacks. A scheme towards differential diagnosis of panic disorder from other psychiatric and medical disorders is proposed. Personality characteristics of these patients vary considerably, but certain factors, such as dependency, are common. Family relations are often strained and assume importance in treatment. Data on the longitudinal course of illness is presented implying a relationship of panic disorder to both depression and stressful life events in many patients. Treatments that thus far seem most effective are pharmacological and behavioural approaches. Imipramine, MAO inhibitors, and alprazolam currently appear to be the most useful medications employed, although other agents may at times be useful alternatives. Dietary interventions, family therapy, and group and individual psychotherapy are also reviewed and discussed as adjunctive therapies in the treatment of panic disorder.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1080\/00048678509158841","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,1,19]],"date-time":"2011-01-19T06:34:55Z","timestamp":1295418895000},"page":"330-341","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Differential Diagnosis and Treatment of Panic Disorder: A Medical Model Perspective"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Bernard J.","family":"Vittone","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Thomas W.","family":"Uhde","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[1985,12,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-00048678509158841","volume-title":"Biology of Agoraphobia","author":"Ballenger J. 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