{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T11:37:31Z","timestamp":1777894651226,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":19,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"1_suppl","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2003,1,1]],"date-time":"2003-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1041379200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxicol Pathol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Exposure to natural environmental products, biopharmaceuticals, or investigational adjuvants has the potential to negatively impact the immune system, resulting in either up- or downregulation of immune function (immunomodulation). Many current protocols for primate toxicologic testing call for the evaluation of changes in immune cell number (peripheral blood or tissue), alterations in the weights of immune system organs (lymph nodes, spleen, thymus), and\/or increases in the overall incidence of infections or neoplasms; these data are relied upon to suggest altered immune function. However, these are informative only when clear differences in frequency and\/or severity of effects can be distinguished across control and dosed groups. In the absence of such distinct morphologic or clinical pathologic changes, the identification of potential immunomodulatory effects can present a much greater challenge. Additional evaluations may be needed to detect altered immune system integrity; these are based on in vivo assessments in primates of cellular or humoral responsiveness. Immunomodulatory effects can be characterized by in vitro or in vivo immune function tests; these tests require prestudy planning to integrate assessments into ongoing toxicology programs. These methods also involve specialized training and equipment, particularly if the intent is to evaluate parameters in a GLP laboratory setting. In primate toxicology, the added costs required to perform a complete functional analysis of the immune system can be substantial, but may be warranted depending on the clinical development plans. Two analytical methods that are easily incorporated into the standard toxicology profile in primates are flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry. Flow cytometry (FC) is used to assess changes in the relative distribution of immune cell marker expression, and where marker expression is known to fluctuate with the state of cell activation, can also provide information on functional attributes of immune cells. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) provides a means to evaluate similar characteristics of immune cells within tissue sections. Used together, FC and IHC can aid in the identification of changes in immune system that may not be apparent by traditional testing procedures (such as H&amp;E staining), thus aiding in the characterization of immune system alterations. This presentation focused on the utility of flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry in a standard primate toxicology evaluation, with representative examples showing the benefits of these technologies in the diagnosis of potential immunomodulatory effects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1080\/01926230390174986","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2004,5,1]],"date-time":"2004-05-01T16:32:13Z","timestamp":1083429133000},"page":"111-118","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Immune Modulator Studies in Primates: The Utility of Flow Cytometry and Immunohistochemistry in the Identification and Characterization of Immunotoxicity"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"31","author":[{"given":"P.B.","family":"Lappin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Sierra Biomedical, a Division of Charles River Laboratories,\rSparks, Nevada 89431, plappin@sbi.criver.com"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"L.E.","family":"Black","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sierra Biomedical, a Division of Charles River Laboratories,\rSparks, Nevada 89431"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2003,1,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(99)02429-0"},{"key":"atypb2","volume-title":"International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) Harmonized Tripartite Guideline \u201cS6\u201d Note for Guidance on Preclinical Safety Evaluation of Biotechnology-derived Pharmaceuticals,\u201d"},{"key":"atypb3","volume-title":"International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) Harmonized Tripartite Guideline \u201cS7A\u201d Note for Guidance on Safety Pharmacology Studies for Human Pharmaceuticals\u201d"},{"key":"atypb4","volume-title":"Note for Guidance on Repeated Dose Toxicity","year":"2000"},{"key":"atypb5","volume-title":"Kuby Immunology","year":"2000"},{"key":"atypb6","unstructured":"Good Laboratory Practice Regulations, 21 CFR 58, Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration , U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. 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