{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T11:37:32Z","timestamp":1777894652491,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":117,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"1_suppl","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2003,1,1]],"date-time":"2003-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1041379200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Toxicol Pathol"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Nonhuman primates are important laboratory animals for biomedical, pharmacology, and toxicology research. To effectively use primates as models, their gross and histologic anatomy, physiology and natural history, as well as common health problems and the source from which the primate is obtained, must be known and understood by pathologists involved in study design and\/or interpretation. The first very important lesson in the \u201cprimer\u201d is: there is no such thing as a generic monkey. Brand names (ie, species and subspecies) are important. Several taxonomic groups of primates are used in research including: prosimians, such as galagos and lemurs; New World monkeys, particularily marmosets; Old World monkeys, especially macaques and baboons; and the chimpanzee, an African ape. Differences between taxa are exemplified by the glucocorticoid resistance of New World monkeys compared to Old World monkeys, which results in the requirement for Vitamin D3 and their high circulating levels of steroids such as cortisone and progesterone. Differences in ovarian histology between Old and New World monkeys probably relate to steroid receptor biology as well. There are also variations in disease manifestations, even among closely related primate species such as rhesus and cynomolgus macaques (cynos). For example type D retrovirus infection is accompanied by lymphomas in cynos, but not rhesus. The second important lesson in this \u201cprimer\u201d is: \u201cnot test article related\u201d does not always mean \u201cnormal.\u201d Lymphoid nodules in bone marrow or salivary gland, a common background finding in macaques, often signal the presence of type D retrovirus. Other histologic changes and normal anatomic variations may be confusing to individuals not routinely examining primate tissues. The objective of this paper is to familiarize pathologists with the use of primates in research as well as lesions and nonlesions (normal anatomy or physiology) of primates that may influence study design and confound interpretation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1080\/01926230390177668","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2004,5,1]],"date-time":"2004-05-01T16:32:13Z","timestamp":1083429133000},"page":"92-102","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["A Primer of Primate Pathology: Lesions and Nonlesions"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"31","author":[{"given":"Linda J.","family":"Lowenstine","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California,\rDavis, California 95616, ljlowenstine@ucdavis.edu"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2003,1,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ilar.41.1.2"},{"key":"atypb2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adler RR, Moore PF, Smucker DL, Lowenstine LJ (1993). Chronic colitis, juvenile Macaca mulatta. In: Nonhuman Primates II, Jones TC, Mohr U, Hunt RD (eds). Springer-Verlag, Berlin , pp 81\u201487.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-84924-4_19"},{"key":"atypb3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.V88.5.1718.1718"},{"key":"atypb4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(84)80585-5"},{"key":"atypb5","volume-title":"Aotus: The owl monkey","year":"1994"},{"key":"atypb6","first-page":"556","volume":"23","year":"1987","journal-title":"Israel J Med Sci"},{"key":"atypb7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.74.8.3892-3898.2000"},{"key":"atypb8","volume-title":"Primates: The Road to Self-sustaining Populations","year":"1987"},{"key":"atypb9","first-page":"167","volume":"30","year":"1985","journal-title":"Adv Vet Sci Comp Med"},{"key":"atypb10","volume-title":"Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Research: Biology and Management (American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine series)","year":"1995"},{"key":"atypb11","volume-title":"Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Research: Diseases","year":"1998"},{"key":"atypb12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Blanchard JL (1993). Generalized amyloidosis, nonhuman primates. In: Nonhuman Primates I , Jones TC, Mohr U, Hunt RD (eds). Springer-Verlag, Berlin , pp 194\u2014197.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-84906-0_29"},{"key":"atypb13","first-page":"255","volume":"48","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cebus apella (Primates: Cebidae). Rev Biol Trop"},{"key":"atypb14","volume-title":"The Rhesus Monkey vol 1. Anatomy, Physiology, vol 2. Management, Reproduction, and Pathology","year":"1975"},{"key":"atypb15","volume-title":"The Chimpanzee","year":"1969"},{"key":"atypb16","volume-title":"Agents Transmissible from Simians to Man","year":"1987"},{"key":"atypb17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000045406"},{"issue":"8","key":"atypb18","first-page":"2203s","volume":"49","year":"1989","journal-title":"Cancer Res"},{"key":"atypb19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1099\/00207713-41-1-148"},{"key":"atypb20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.37.5.1548-1553.1999"},{"key":"atypb21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1997.8461"},{"key":"atypb22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1984.33.940"},{"key":"atypb23","unstructured":"Butler H. (1982). The placenta and fetal membranes of the strepsirhini and haplorhini. In: The Lesser Bushbaby (Galago) as an Animal Model: Selected Topics, Hines DE (ed). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp 183\u2014 198."},{"key":"atypb24","first-page":"351","volume":"44","year":"1994","journal-title":"Lab Anim Sci"},{"key":"atypb25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.68.2.1149-1157.1994"},{"key":"atypb26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.98.3.1224"},{"key":"atypb27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1098-2345(1999)47:4<335::AID-AJP5>3.0.CO;2-Y"},{"key":"atypb28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cork LC, Walker LC (1993). Age-related lesions, nervous system. In: Nonhuman Primates II, Jones TC , Mohr U, Hunt RD (eds). (1999). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp 173\u2014183.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-84924-4_37"},{"key":"atypb29","first-page":"35","volume":"42","year":"1992","journal-title":"Lab Anim Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"atypb30","first-page":"S186","volume":"25","year":"1997","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"atypb31","volume-title":"Symposium on the Role of the Chimpanzee in Research"},{"key":"atypb32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-50-5-421"},{"key":"atypb33","first-page":"291","volume":"7","year":"1988","journal-title":"J Med Primatol"},{"key":"atypb34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0684.1988.tb00195.x"},{"key":"atypb35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ford EW, Roberts JR, Southers JL (1998). Urogenital System. In: Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Research: Diseases, Bennett BT, Abee CR, Henrickson R (eds). Academic Press, San Diego, pp 311\u2014361.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012088665-4\/50010-5"},{"key":"atypb36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ilar.42.2.139"},{"key":"atypb37","first-page":"37","volume":"41","year":"2002","journal-title":"ILAR J"},{"key":"atypb38","unstructured":"Gengozian N. (1979). The marmoset as a model for twinning, chimerism and immunologic tolerance. In: Spontaneous Animal Models of Human Disease, Volume I. Andrews EJ, Ward BC, Altman NH (eds). Academic Press, New York, pp 222\u2014223."},{"key":"atypb39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ilar.42.2.103"},{"key":"atypb40","first-page":"750","volume":"37","year":"1987","journal-title":"Lab Anim Sci"},{"key":"atypb41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1098-2345(199910)49:2<183::AID-AJP8>3.0.CO;2-T"},{"key":"atypb42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gliatto JM, Bronson RT (1993). Spontaneous pallidonigral spheroids and iron pigment accumulation, macaques. In: Nonhuman Primates II, Jones TC, Mohr U , Hunt RD (eds). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp 183\u2014187.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-84924-4_38"},{"key":"atypb43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0684.1994.tb00289.x"},{"key":"atypb44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0684.1990.tb00254.x"},{"key":"atypb45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0684.1992.tb00623.x"},{"key":"atypb46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000156498"},{"key":"atypb47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/019262339902700609"},{"key":"atypb48","volume-title":"The Lesser Bushbaby (Galago) as an Animal Model: Selected Topics","year":"1982"},{"key":"atypb49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0038-1645993"},{"key":"atypb50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1053\/gast.1996.v111.pm8898653"},{"key":"atypb51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2143(97)90041-X"},{"key":"atypb52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1054-3589(00)49034-4"},{"key":"atypb53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/viro.1994.1207"},{"key":"atypb54","first-page":"51","year":"2001","journal-title":"Compar Med (Memphis)"},{"key":"atypb55","volume-title":"ILSI Monographs on Pathology of Laboratory Animals: Nonhuman Primates I","year":"1993"},{"key":"atypb56","volume-title":"ILSI Monographs on Pathology of Laboratory Animals: Nonhuman Primates II","year":"1993"},{"key":"atypb57","first-page":"557","volume":"27","year":"1977","journal-title":"Lab Anim Sci"},{"key":"atypb58","unstructured":"Kemnitz JW (1990). Rhesus monkeys and other primate models. In: The Encyclopedia of Aging, 2nd ed, Maddox G (ed). Springer Publishing Inc, New York, pp 829\u2014830."},{"key":"atypb59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0264-410X(96)00277-0"},{"key":"atypb60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1005496022881"},{"key":"atypb61","volume-title":"The Biology and Conservation of the Callitrichidae","year":"1977"},{"key":"atypb62","unstructured":"Kohn DF, Haines DE (1982). Diseases of the Prosimii: A review. In: The Lesser Bushbaby (Galago) as an Animal Model: Selected Topics, Haines DE (ed). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp 285\u2014301."},{"key":"atypb63","first-page":"400","volume":"35","year":"1985","journal-title":"Lab Anim Sci"},{"key":"atypb64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lackner AA, Armitage GC, Schiodt M. (1993). Noma, Macaca mulatta. In: Nonhuman Primates I, Jones TC, Mohr U, Hunt RD (eds). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp 70\u201473.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-84906-0_10"},{"key":"atypb65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0684.1992.tb00621.x"},{"key":"atypb66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-200207260-00005"},{"key":"atypb67","first-page":"1347","volume":"185","year":"1984","journal-title":"J Amer Vet Med Assoc"},{"key":"atypb68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-065x.2001.1830111.x"},{"key":"atypb69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lowenstine LJ (1993). Type D retrovirus infection, macaques. In: ILSI Monographs on the Pathology of Laboratory Animals, Nonhuman Primates I, Jones TC , Mohr U, Hunt RD (eds). Springer-Verlag, Berlin , pp 20\u201432.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-84906-0_3"},{"key":"atypb70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/20094885"},{"key":"atypb71","unstructured":"Lowenstine LJ , Munson L. (1998). Iron storage in the animal kingdom. In: Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine CVT IV, Fowler ME, Miller RE (eds). WB Saunders, Philadelphia , pp 260\u2014268."},{"issue":"6","key":"atypb72","first-page":"1022","volume":"26","year":"1976","journal-title":"Lab Anim Sci"},{"key":"atypb73","first-page":"4253","volume":"74","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Virol"},{"key":"atypb74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-1345(01)02785-3"},{"key":"atypb75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0684.1997.tb00046.x"},{"key":"atypb76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/322990"},{"key":"atypb77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/088922201753197123"},{"key":"atypb78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/nbdi.1999.0270"},{"key":"atypb79","first-page":"138","volume":"47","year":"1997","journal-title":"Lab Anim Sci"},{"key":"atypb80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-065x.2001.1830107.x"},{"key":"atypb81","first-page":"315","volume":"27","year":"1996","journal-title":"J Zoo Wildlife Med"},{"key":"atypb82","first-page":"53","volume":"3","year":"1986","journal-title":"Implantologist"},{"key":"atypb83","first-page":"604","volume":"34","year":"1984","journal-title":"Sci"},{"key":"atypb84","first-page":"588","volume":"17","year":"2001","journal-title":"Parasitol"},{"key":"atypb85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Osborn KG, Lowenstine LJ (1998). Respiratory System. In: Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Research: Diseases, Bennett BT, Abee CR, Henrickson R (eds). Academic Press, San Diego, California, pp 263\u2014309.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012088665-4\/50009-9"},{"key":"atypb86","first-page":"94","volume":"114","year":"1984","journal-title":"Am J Path"},{"key":"atypb87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI117136"},{"key":"atypb88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-302X.1994.tb00043.x"},{"key":"atypb89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0684.1992.tb00583.x"},{"key":"atypb90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/030098587901600413"},{"key":"atypb91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Richter CB, Lehner NDM, Henrickson RV (1984). Primates. In: Laboratory Animal Medicine, Fox JG, Cohen BJ, Loew FM (eds). Academic Press, Orlando, pp 297\u2014383.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-263620-2.50017-3"},{"key":"atypb92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roberts ED (1993). Vitamin C deficiency, Old and New World monkeys . In: ILSI Monographs on the Pathology of Laboratory Animals, Nonhuman Primates I, Jones TC, Mohr U, Hunt RD (eds). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp 202\u2014206.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-84906-0_31"},{"key":"atypb93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/515527"},{"key":"atypb94","first-page":"472","volume":"47","year":"1997","journal-title":"Lab Anim Sci"},{"key":"atypb95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-2828(85)80130-9"},{"key":"atypb96","volume-title":"Handbook of Squirrel Monkey Research","year":"1985"},{"key":"atypb97","volume-title":"The Squirrel Monkey","year":"1968"},{"key":"atypb98","volume-title":"The Pictorial Guide to the Living Primates","year":"1996"},{"key":"atypb99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/62.2.463S"},{"issue":"7","key":"atypb100","first-page":"17","volume":"19","year":"1982","journal-title":"Vet Path"},{"key":"atypb101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/gcen.2001.7696"},{"key":"atypb102","first-page":"43","volume":"26","year":"1995","journal-title":"J Zoo Wildlife Med"},{"key":"atypb103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.166.6.3983"},{"key":"atypb104","first-page":"197","volume":"49","year":"1999","journal-title":"Lab Anim Sci"},{"key":"atypb105","first-page":"303","volume":"48","year":"1998","journal-title":"Lab Anim Sci"},{"issue":"6","key":"atypb106","first-page":"38","volume":"18","year":"1981","journal-title":"Vet Path"},{"key":"atypb107","volume-title":"An Atlas of Primate Gross Anatomy: Baboon, Chimpanzee and Man. Robert E","year":"1982"},{"key":"atypb108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1005622521294"},{"key":"atypb109","volume-title":"Symposium on Marmoset Pathology","year":"1984"},{"key":"atypb110","first-page":"555","volume":"51","year":"2001","journal-title":"Comp Med"},{"key":"atypb111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/019262301301418955"},{"key":"atypb112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1992.46.366"},{"key":"atypb113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0684.1993.tb00686.x"},{"key":"atypb114","first-page":"141","volume":"44","year":"1994","journal-title":"Lab Anim Sci"},{"key":"atypb115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1018842210330"},{"key":"atypb116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1005485215128"},{"key":"atypb117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-38.2.258"}],"container-title":["Toxicologic Pathology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1080\/01926230390177668","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1080\/01926230390177668","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T07:28:13Z","timestamp":1777620493000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1080\/01926230390177668"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2003,1]]},"references-count":117,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1_suppl","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1080\/01926230390177668"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/01926230390177668","relation":{},"ISSN":["0192-6233","1533-1601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0192-6233","type":"print"},{"value":"1533-1601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2003,1]]}}}