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The main innovation here was to examine the goal specificity effect under both observation\u2010based and conventional action\u2010based learning conditions. The findings show that goal specificity affects the accuracy of problem solving in the same way when the learning stage of the task is observation\u2010based as when it is action\u2010based. In addition, the findings show that, when instructions do not promote goal specificity, observation\u2010based problem solving is as effective as action\u2010based problem solving.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1080\/03640210701703683","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2008,2,13]],"date-time":"2008-02-13T01:20:03Z","timestamp":1202865603000},"page":"162-183","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Observation Can Be as Effective as Action in Problem Solving"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"32","author":[{"given":"Magda","family":"Osman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2008,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_7_2_1","first-page":"73","volume-title":"Strategic teaching and learning: Cognitive instruction in the content areas","author":"Anderson C. 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