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Ten per cent of participants had used heroin primarily by smoking\/inhaling in the month preceding interview, and 9% had used heroin and other drugs exclusively by non\u2010injecting routes. Non\u2010injectors were younger (25.3 vs. 29.5 years), had higher levels of eduction (10.6 vs. 10.0 years), were more likely to be employed (33 vs. 18%) and had lower levels of recent crime (31 vs. 56%). They also had shorter heroin using careers (5.1 vs. 9.9 years), fewer symptoms of dependence (5.1 vs. 5.6), had been enrolled in fewer previous treatment episodes (3.3 vs. 11.5) and had less extensive lifetime (8.0 vs. 9.1 drug classes) and recent (3.6 vs. 4.9) polydrug use. Non\u2010injectors were substantially less likely to report lifetime (13% vs. 58%) or recent (2% vs. 29%) heroin overdoses. There were no differences between the general physical and psychological health of the two groups. While non\u2010injectors had a lower level of post\u2010traumatic stress disorder (29% vs. 34%), there were no differences in levels of major depression, attempted suicide, antisocial personality disorder, or borderline personality disorder. A substantial minority of Australian treatment entrants are now using heroin exclusively by non\u2010injecting routes. While this group is younger, and has substantially reduced risk of overdose and blood borne virus transmission, the physical and psychological health of non\u2010injectors mirrors that of injectors.<\/jats:italic><\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1080\/095952304100017044163","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2004,6,28]],"date-time":"2004-06-28T23:30:53Z","timestamp":1088465453000},"page":"177-183","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Non\u2010injecting routes of administration among entrants to three treatment modalities for heroin dependence"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"SHANE","family":"DARKE","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"KATE","family":"HETHERINGTON","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"JOANNE","family":"ROSS","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"MICHAEL","family":"LYNSKEY","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"MAREE","family":"TEESSON","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2009,5,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/105504999305956"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.1997.tb02927.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_2","volume-title":"From chasing the dragon to Chinezon. 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