{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T21:53:44Z","timestamp":1775080424442,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"Informa UK Limited","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,28]],"date-time":"2024-11-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1732752000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.tandfonline.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["International Journal of Human\u2013Computer Interaction"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,18]]},"DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2024.2431761","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,28]],"date-time":"2024-11-28T05:42:22Z","timestamp":1732772542000},"page":"10207-10229","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/tandf_crossmark_01","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":100,"title":["Prompting AI Art: An Investigation into the Creative Skill of Prompt Engineering"],"prefix":"10.1080","volume":"41","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2342-1540","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jonas","family":"Oppenlaender","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Ubiquitous Computing, Faculty of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, University of Oulu","place":["Oulu, Finland"]}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4720-6818","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rhema","family":"Linder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Min H. Kao Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, The University of Tennessee Knoxville","place":["Knoxville, United States"]}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0763-0297","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Johanna","family":"Silvennoinen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Information Technology, University of Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4","place":["Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4, Finland"]}]}],"member":"301","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_1","unstructured":"Acar O. A. (2023). AI prompt engineering isn\u2019t the future. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https:\/\/hbr.org\/2023\/06\/ai-prompt-engineering-isnt-the-future"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_1","unstructured":"Allen C. (2022). Zippy\u2019s disco diffusion cheatsheet v0.3. https:\/\/docs.google.com\/document\/d\/1l8s7uS2d GqjztYSjPpzlmXLjl5PM3IGkRWI3IiCuK7g\/edit."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1163\/22134913-00002052"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2022.acl-demo.9"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2207676.2208311"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_1","unstructured":"Betker J. Goh G. Jing L. Brooks T. Wang J. Li L. Ouyang L. Zhuang J. Lee J. Guo Y. Manassra W. Dhariwal P. Chu C. Jiao Y. & Ramesh A. (2023). Improving image generation with better captions. https:\/\/cdn.openai.com\/papers\/dall-e-3.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_1","unstructured":"Bommasani R. Hudson D. A. Adeli E. Altman R. Arora S. von Arx S. Bernstein M. S. Bohg J. Bosselut A. Brunskill E. Brynjolfsson E. Buch S. Card D. Castellon R. Chatterji N. S. Chen A. S. Creel K. A. Davis J. Demszky D. \u2026 Liang P. (2021). On the opportunities and risks of foundation models. https:\/\/crfm.stanford.edu\/assets\/report.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2005.04.007"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/09296171003643098"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-19836-6_6"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2309.15807"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3544548.3580969"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_1","unstructured":"Dang H. Mecke L. Lehmann F. Goller S. & Buschek D. (2022). How to prompt? Opportunities and challenges of zero- and few-shot learning for human-AI interaction in creative applications of generative models. In Generative AI and HCI Workshop at CHI 2022."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3576840.3578327"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_1","unstructured":"Department for Science Innovation & Technology. (2024). Senior prompt engineer \u2013 Autonomous Systems (ai Safety Institute)."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_1","volume-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems","author":"Dhariwal P.","year":"2021","unstructured":"Dhariwal, P., & Nichol, A. Q. (2021). Diffusion models beat GANs on image synthesis. In Beygelzimer, A., Dauphin, Y., Liang, P., and Vaughan, J. W., editors, Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.emnlp-main.253"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_19_1","unstructured":"Gabha H. (2022). Disco diffusion 70+ artist studies."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11023-020-09539-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_1","volume-title":"The 11th International Conference on Learning Representations","author":"Gal R.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Gal, R., Alaluf, Y., Atzmon, Y., Patashnik, O., Bermano, A. H., Chechik, G., & Cohen-Or, D. (2023). An image is worth one word: Personalizing text-to-image generation using textual inversion [Paper presentation]. The 11th International Conference on Learning Representations."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2014.06.008"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2024.2345430"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2023.2171489"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_25_1","volume-title":"GenZ white paper: Strengthening human competences in the emerging digital era","author":"Haddington P.","year":"2021","unstructured":"Haddington, P., Hirvonen, N., Hosio, S., Kinnula, M., Malmberg, J., Seyfi, S., Simonen, J., Ahola, S., Cort\u00e9s Orduna, M., Enwald, H., Haukipuro, L., Heikkinen, M., Hermes, J., Huikari, S., Iivari, N., J\u00e4rvel\u00e4, S., Kanste, O., Kokkola, L., Kunnari, S., & Zabolotna, K. (2021). GenZ white paper: Strengthening human competences in the emerging digital era. Technical report, University of Oulu."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_26_1","unstructured":"Hayward J. (2022). The growing art movement of \u2018promptism\u2019."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2556288.2557298"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_28_1","article-title":"Midjourney office hours","author":"Holz D.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Holz, D. (2023). Midjourney office hours. Personal Communication via Discord.","journal-title":"Personal Communication via Discord."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3491102.3517434"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_30_1","first-page":"3251","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 29th International Conference on Computational Linguistics","author":"Hou Y.","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hou, Y., Dong, H., Wang, X., Li, B., & Che, W. (2022). MetaPrompting: Learning to learn better prompts [Paper presentation]. Proceedings of the 29th International Conference on Computational Linguistics, pp. 3251\u20133262. International Committee on Computational Linguistics."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1049732305276687"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_32_1","volume-title":"International Conference on Learning Representations","author":"Hu E. J.","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hu, E. J., Shen, Y., Wallis, P., Allen-Zhu, Z., Li, Y., Wang, S., Wang, L., & Chen, W. (2022). LoRA: Low-rank adaptation of large language models [Paper presentation]. International Conference on Learning Representations."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1645953.1645966"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2024.2311971"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3491101.3503564"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0093508"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MSP.2011.941851"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_38_1","first-page":"57","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computational Creativity","author":"Kantosalo A.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kantosalo, A., Thattai Ravikumar, P., Grace, K., & Takala, T. (2020). Modalities, styles and strategies: An interaction framework for human\u2013computer co-creativity [Paper presentation]. Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computational Creativity, In A. Cardoso, P. Machado, T. Veale, & J. Cunha (Eds.), pp. 57\u201364. Association for Computational Creativity."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_39_1","first-page":"2083","volume-title":"Proceedings of the DESIGN 2014 13th International Design Conference","author":"Khalighy S.","year":"2014","unstructured":"Khalighy, S., Green, G., Scheepers, C., & Whittet, C. (2014). Measuring aesthetic in design. In Proceedings of the DESIGN 2014 13th International Design Conference, pp. 2083\u20132094. The Design Society."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2024.2307670"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-46448-0_40"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3474355"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_43_1","unstructured":"Kyle K. (2018). lexical-diversity python package. https:\/\/pypi.org\/project\/lexical-diversity"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_44_1","first-page":"707","article-title":"Binary codes capable of correcting deletions, insertions, and reversals","volume":"10","author":"Levenshtein V. I.","year":"1965","unstructured":"Levenshtein, V. I. (1965). Binary codes capable of correcting deletions, insertions, and reversals. Soviet Physics. Doklady, 10, 707\u2013710.","journal-title":"Soviet Physics. Doklady"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_45_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 34th International Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems, NIPS \u201820\u2019","author":"Lewis P.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lewis, P., Perez, E., Piktus, A., Petroni, F., Karpukhin, V., Goyal, N., K\u00fcttler, H., Lewis, M., Yih, W-t., Rockt\u00e4schel, T., Riedel, S., & Kiela, D. (2020). Retrieval-augmented generation for knowledge-intensive NLP tasks [Paper presentation]. Proceedings of the 34th International Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems, NIPS \u201820\u2019, Red Hook, NY, USA. Curran Associates Inc."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3491102.3501825"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BRM.42.2.381"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3359174"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_49_1","unstructured":"Merriam-Webster. (2024). Skill. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.merriam-webster.com\/dictionary\/skill"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_50_1","unstructured":"Microsoft. (2024). 2024 work trend index annual report. Technical report Microsoft. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.microsoft.com\/en-us\/worklab\/work-trend-index\/ai-at-work-is-here-now-comes-the-hard-part"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_51_1","unstructured":"Midjourney. (2022). Midjourney.com. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.midjourney.com"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_52_1","unstructured":"Midjourney. (2023). Announcement. Retrieved from https:\/\/discord.com\/channels\/662267976984297473\/952771221915840552\/1187272332268556298"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_53_1","unstructured":"OpenAI. (2022). ChatGPT: Optimizing language models for dialogue. Retrieved from https:\/\/openai.com\/blog\/chatgpt\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3569219.3569352"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/0144929X.2023.2286532"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-66528-8_14"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3641023"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_58_1","unstructured":"Oppenlaender J. & H\u00e4m\u00e4l\u00e4inen J. (2023). Mapping the challenges of HCI: An application and evaluation of ChatGPT and GPT-4 for mining insights at scale."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2408.05476"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3616961.3616978"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2303.13530"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.01729"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTSP.2012.2215306"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3527927.3532792"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_65_1","first-page":"8748","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 38th International Conference on Machine Learning, Volume 139 of Proceedings of Machine Learning Research","author":"Radford A.","year":"2021","unstructured":"Radford, A., Kim, J. W., Hallacy, C., Ramesh, A., Goh, G., Agarwal, S., Sastry, G., Askell, A., Mishkin, P., Clark, J., Krueger, G., & Sutskever, I. (2021). Learning transferable visual models from natural language supervision [Paper presentation]. Proceedings of the 38th International Conference on Machine Learning, Volume 139 of Proceedings of Machine Learning Research. In M. Meila, & T. Zhang, (Eds), pp. 8748\u20138763. PMLR."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_66_1","unstructured":"Ramesh A. Dhariwal P. Nichol A. Chu C. & Chen M. (2022). Hierarchical text-conditional image generation with CLIP latents."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_67_1","first-page":"8821","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 38th International Conference on Machine Learning, Volume 139 of Proceedings of Machine Learning Research","author":"Ramesh A.","year":"2021","unstructured":"Ramesh, A., Pavlov, M., Goh, G., Gray, S., Voss, C., Radford, A., Chen, M., & Sutskever, I. (2021). Zero-shot text-to-image generation [Paper presentation]. Proceedings of the 38th International Conference on Machine Learning, Volume 139 of Proceedings of Machine Learning Research. In M. Meila, & T. Zhang, (Eds), pp.8821\u20138831. PMLR."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3411763.3451760"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR52688.2022.01042"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CVPR52729.2023.02155"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.83.5.1178"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/QoMEX.2014.6982326"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_73_1","unstructured":"Smith E. (2022). A traveler\u2019s guide to the latent space. Retrieved from https:\/\/sweet-hall-e72.notion.site\/A-Traveler-s-Guide-to-the-Latent-Space-85efba7e5e6a40e5bd3cae980f30235f"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_74_1","volume-title":"The Wisdom of Crowds","author":"Surowiecki J.","year":"2005","unstructured":"Surowiecki, J. (2005). The Wisdom of Crowds. Anchor."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1001749303137"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2016.06.003"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCVW54120.2021.00217"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/159544.159617"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1498759.1498819"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02763877.2015.1122559"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_81_1","unstructured":"Wu Q. Bansal G. Zhang J. Wu Y. Li B. Zhu E. Jiang L. Zhang X. Zhang S. Liu J. Awadallah A. H. White R. W. Burger D. & Wang C. (2024). AutoGen: Enabling next-gen LLM applications via multi-agent conversation. COLM conference. https:\/\/openreview.net\/forum?id=BAakY1hNKS"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3543507.3587430"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asw.2020.100505"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV51070.2023.00355"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_85_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2024.2323277"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_86_1","volume-title":"AI Art: Machine Visions and Warped Dreams","author":"Zylinska J.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Zylinska, J. (2020). AI Art: Machine Visions and Warped Dreams. Open Humanities Press."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Human\u2013Computer Interaction"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1080\/10447318.2024.2431761","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]],"date-time":"2025-11-27T04:33:19Z","timestamp":1764217999000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/doi\/full\/10.1080\/10447318.2024.2431761"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,28]]},"references-count":85,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,18]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1080\/10447318.2024.2431761"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/10447318.2024.2431761","relation":{},"ISSN":["1044-7318","1532-7590"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1044-7318","type":"print"},{"value":"1532-7590","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,28]]},"assertion":[{"value":"The publishing and review policy for this title is described in its Aims & Scope.","order":1,"name":"peerreview_statement","label":"Peer Review Statement"},{"value":"http:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/action\/journalInformation?show=aimsScope&journalCode=hihc20","URL":"http:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/action\/journalInformation?show=aimsScope&journalCode=hihc20","order":2,"name":"aims_and_scope_url","label":"Aim & Scope"},{"value":"2024-02-07","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-06-29","order":1,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-11-13","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2024-11-28","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}