{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,4]],"date-time":"2026-07-04T16:42:39Z","timestamp":1783183359392,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"Informa UK Limited","issue":"9","funder":[{"name":"National Science Foundation funded AI institute","award":["2112606"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2112606"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.tandfonline.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["International Journal of Geographical Information Science"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,2]]},"DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2025.2511227","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,2]],"date-time":"2025-06-02T09:39:32Z","timestamp":1748857172000},"page":"1866-1903","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/tandf_crossmark_01","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Foundation models for geospatial reasoning: assessing the capabilities of large language models in understanding geometries and topological spatial relations"],"prefix":"10.1080","volume":"39","author":[{"given":"Yuhan","family":"Ji","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"GeoDS Lab, Department of Geography, University of Wisconsin","place":["Madison, USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4359-6302","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Song","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GeoDS Lab, Department of Geography, University of Wisconsin","place":["Madison, USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ying","family":"Nie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GeoDS Lab, Department of Geography, University of Wisconsin","place":["Madison, USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ivan","family":"Maji\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of\u00a0Geography and Regional Research, University of Vienna","place":["Austria"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Krzysztof","family":"Janowicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of\u00a0Geography and Regional Research, University of Vienna","place":["Austria"]},{"name":"Department of Geography, University of California","place":["Santa Barbara, USA"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"301","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_5_2_1","volume-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2303.08774","author":"Achiam J.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Achiam, J., et\u00a0al., 2023. GPT-4 technical report. arXiv preprint arXiv:2303.08774."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_3_1","first-page":"23716","article-title":"Flamingo: a visual language model for few-shot learning","volume":"35","author":"Alayrac J.-B.","year":"2022","unstructured":"Alayrac, J.-B., et\u00a0al., 2022. Flamingo: a visual language model for few-shot learning. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 35, 23716\u201323736.","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems,"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_4_1","volume-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2410.03492","author":"Blackwell R.E.","year":"2024","unstructured":"Blackwell, R.E., Barry, J., and Cohn, A.G., 2024. Towards reproducible llm evaluation: quantifying uncertainty in llm benchmark scores. arXiv preprint arXiv:2410.03492."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_5_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Translating embeddings for modeling multi-relational data","volume":"26","author":"Bordes A.","year":"2013","unstructured":"Bordes, A., et\u00a0al., 2013. Translating embeddings for modeling multi-relational data. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 26, 1\u20139.","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems,"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_7_1","first-page":"1877","article-title":"Language models are few-shot learners","volume":"33","author":"Brown T.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Brown, T., et\u00a0al., 2020. Language models are few-shot learners. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 33, 1877\u20131901.","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems,"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03196417"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2071389.2071390"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2015.1117684"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi7060221"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0269888913000350"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_13_1","volume-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2107.03374","author":"Chen M.","year":"2021","unstructured":"Chen, M., et\u00a0al., 2021. Evaluating large language models trained on code. arXiv preprint arXiv:2107.03374."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-11593-1_23"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi13010025"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0020-0255(95)00289-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-56869-7_16"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0097-8493(94)90007-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_19_1","volume-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2309.15577","author":"Cohn A.G.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Cohn, A.G., 2023. An evaluation of ChatGPT-4\u2019s qualitative spatial reasoning capabilities in RCC-8. arXiv preprint arXiv:2309.15577."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_20_1","unstructured":"Cohn A.G. and Blackwell R.E. 2024a. Can large language models reason about the region connection calculus? arXiv preprint arXiv:2411.19589."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_21_1","first-page":"28:1","volume-title":"16th International Conference on Spatial Information Theory (COSIT 2024), volume 315 of Leibniz International Proceedings in Informatics (LIPIcs)","author":"Cohn A.G.","year":"2024","unstructured":"Cohn, A.G., and Blackwell, R.E., 2024b. Evaluating the Ability of Large Language Models to Reason About Cardinal Directions. In Adams, B., Griffin, A. L., Scheider, S., and McKenzie, G., editors, 16th International Conference on Spatial Information Theory (COSIT 2024), volume 315 of Leibniz International Proceedings in Informatics (LIPIcs), pages 28:1\u201328:9, Dagstuhl, Germany. Schloss Dagstuhl \u2013 Leibniz-Zentrum f\u00fcr Informatik."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_22_1","first-page":"1-2):1","article-title":"Qualitative spatial representation and reasoning: An overview","volume":"46","author":"Cohn A.G.","year":"2001","unstructured":"Cohn, A.G., and Hazarika, S.M., 2001. Qualitative spatial representation and reasoning: An overview. Fundamenta Informaticae, 46, (1-2):1\u201329.","journal-title":"Fundamenta Informaticae,"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_23_1","volume-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2304.11164","author":"Cohn A.G.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Cohn, A.G., and Hernandez-Orallo, J., 2023. Dialectical language model evaluation: An initial appraisal of the commonsense spatial reasoning abilities of llms. arXiv preprint arXiv:2304.11164."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1574-6526(07)03013-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-56869-7_17"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_26_1","unstructured":"Das S. 2023. Evaluating the capabilities of large language models for spatial and situational understanding. PhD thesis (MA). University of Cambridge."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_27_1","volume-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:1810.04805","author":"Devlin J.","year":"2018","unstructured":"Devlin, J., et\u00a0al., 2018. BERT: Pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. arXiv preprint arXiv:1810.04805."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_28_1","volume-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2010.11929","author":"Dosovitskiy A.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Dosovitskiy, A., et\u00a0al., 2020. An image is worth 16x16 words: Transformers for image recognition at scale. arXiv preprint arXiv:2010.11929."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1210","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2005.1525335","volume-title":"Proceedings. 2005 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, 2005. IGARSS\u201905.","volume":"2","author":"Du S.","year":"2005","unstructured":"Du, S., et\u00a0al., 2005. Spatial data query based on natural language spatial relations. In Proceedings. 2005 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, 2005. IGARSS\u201905., volume 2, p. 1210\u20131213. IEEE."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-55966-3_12"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02693799108927841"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_32_1","unstructured":"Egenhofer M.J. and Herring J.R. 1991. Categorizing binary topological relations between regions lines and points in geographic databases. Technical report Department of Surveying Engineering University of Maine Orono Maine USA."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02693799508902056"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_34_1","volume-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2310.11029","author":"Fernandez A.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Fernandez, A., and Dube, S., 2023. Core building blocks: Next gen geo spatial GPT application. arXiv preprint arXiv:2310.11029."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1473871617698516"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/1045-926X(92)90007-9"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-69342-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neunet.2021.07.019"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00330124.2024.2372792"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/COMGEO.2013.18"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1201\/9781003308423"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2016.1273357"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3687123.3698286"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/tgis.12915"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_45_1","volume-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2501.12948","author":"Guo D.","year":"2025","unstructured":"Guo, D., et\u00a0al., 2025. Deepseek-r1: Incentivizing reasoning capability in LLMs via reinforcement learning. arXiv preprint arXiv:2501.12948."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10095020.1998.10553282"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3138\/E816-M074-8791-4506"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/19475683.2024.2309866"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2675354.2675356"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/tgis.12151"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2023.2266495"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2024.2347322"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_53_1","volume-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2310.18660","author":"Jakubik J.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Jakubik, J., et\u00a0al., 2023. Foundation models for generalist geospatial artificial intelligence. arXiv preprint arXiv:2310.18660."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1201\/9781003308423-3"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2019.1684500"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1609\/aimag.v36i1.2560"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_57_1","first-page":"1","volume-title":"12th International Conference on Geographic Information Science (GIScience 2023)","volume":"43","author":"Ji Y.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ji, Y., and Gao, S., 2023. Evaluating the effectiveness of large language models in representing textual descriptions of geometry and spatial relations (short paper). In 12th International Conference on Geographic Information Science (GIScience 2023), 43, 1\u20136. Schloss-Dagstuhl-Leibniz Zentrum f\u00fcr Informatik."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-30231-5_9"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lindif.2023.102274"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCV51070.2023.00371"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_61_1","first-page":"22199","article-title":"Large language models are zero-shot reasoners","volume":"35","author":"Kojima T.","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kojima, T., et\u00a0al., 2022. Large language models are zero-shot reasoners. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 35, 22199\u201322213.","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems,"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2050104.2050105"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_63_1","first-page":"9459","article-title":"Retrieval-augmented generation for knowledge-intensive nlp tasks","volume":"33","author":"Lewis P.","year":"2020","unstructured":"Lewis, P., et\u00a0al., 2020. Retrieval-augmented generation for knowledge-intensive nlp tasks. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 33, 9459\u20139474.","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems,"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3615886.3627747"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/17538947.2023.2278895"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_66_1","volume-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:1803.02893","author":"Logeswaran L.","year":"2018","unstructured":"Logeswaran, L., and Lee, H., 2018. An efficient framework for learning sentence representations. arXiv preprint arXiv:1803.02893."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-32597-7_5"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10339-010-0385-5"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3557915.3561043"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3653070"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/tgis.12629"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2021.2004602"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2020.1778002"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_74_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3687123.3698293"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_75_1","volume-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2310.06213","author":"Manvi R.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Manvi, R., et\u00a0al., 2023. GeoLLM: Extracting geospatial knowledge from large language models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2310.06213."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1559\/152304094782540637"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3615886.3627745"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_78_1","volume-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2202.08904","author":"Muennighoff N.","year":"2022","unstructured":"Muennighoff, N., 2022. Sgpt: GPT sentence embeddings for semantic search. arXiv preprint arXiv:2202.08904."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_79_1","volume-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2201.10005","author":"Neelakantan A.","year":"2022","unstructured":"Neelakantan, A., et\u00a0al., 2022. Text and code embeddings by contrastive pre-training. arXiv preprint arXiv:2201.10005."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_80_1","unstructured":"OpenAI 2022. Introducing ChatGPT."},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_5_81_1","first-page":"12","article-title":"Improving language understanding by generative pre-training","volume":"0","author":"Radford A.","year":"2018","unstructured":"Radford, A., et\u00a0al., 2018. Improving language understanding by generative pre-training. OpenAI Blog, 0 (1), 12.","journal-title":"OpenAI Blog,"},{"issue":"8","key":"e_1_3_5_82_1","first-page":"24","article-title":"Language models are unsupervised multitask learners","volume":"1","author":"Radford A.","year":"2019","unstructured":"Radford, A., et\u00a0al., 2019. Language models are unsupervised multitask learners. OpenAI Blog, 1\u00a0(8), 24.","journal-title":"OpenAI Blog,"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_83_1","unstructured":"Ramesh A. et\u00a0al. 2021. DALL\u00b7E: Creating images from text."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_84_1","first-page":"165","article-title":"A spatial logic based on regions and connection","volume":"92","author":"Randell D.A.","year":"1992","unstructured":"Randell, D.A., Cui, Z., and Cohn, A.G., 1992. A spatial logic based on regions and connection. Principles of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, 92, 165\u2013176.","journal-title":"Principles of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning,"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_85_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3589132.3625611"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/D19-1410"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_87_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-68566-1_32"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_88_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-69342-4_17"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_89_1","volume-title":"Handbook of computational geometry","author":"Sack J.-R.","year":"1999","unstructured":"Sack, J.-R., and Urrutia, J., 1999. Handbook of computational geometry. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_90_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/17538947.2020.1738568"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_91_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1538-7305.1948.tb01338.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_92_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MIS.2023.3268724"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_93_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2894745"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_94_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi12070284"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_95_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1609\/aaai.v25i1.7979"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_96_1","volume-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2201.08239","author":"Thoppilan R.","year":"2022","unstructured":"Thoppilan, R., et\u00a0al., 2022. LaMDA: Language models for dialog applications. arXiv preprint arXiv:2201.08239."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_97_1","volume-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2401.10279","author":"Tucker S.","year":"2024","unstructured":"Tucker, S., 2024. A systematic review of geospatial location embedding approaches in large language models: A path to spatial ai systems. arXiv preprint arXiv:2401.10279."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_98_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2675354.2675702"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_99_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2837689.2837692"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_100_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-0114(99)00018-4"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_101_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.emnlp-main.585"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_102_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11069-016-2329-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_103_1","first-page":"24824","article-title":"Chain-of-thought prompting elicits reasoning in large language models","volume":"35","author":"Wei J.","year":"2022","unstructured":"Wei, J., et\u00a0al., 2022. Chain-of-thought prompting elicits reasoning in large language models. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 35, 24824\u201324837.","journal-title":"Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems,"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_104_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4018\/978-1-61692-868-1.ch011"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_105_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10095020.2022.2076619"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_106_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jag.2023.103591"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_107_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3589132.3625616"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_108_1","volume-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2310.14540","author":"Yamada Y.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yamada, Y., et\u00a0al., 2023. Evaluating spatial understanding of large language models. arXiv preprint arXiv:2310.14540."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_109_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/3139958.3140054"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_110_1","volume-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2412.14171","author":"Yang J.","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yang, J., et\u00a0al., 2024. Thinking in space: How multimodal large language models see, remember, and recall spaces. arXiv preprint arXiv:2412.14171."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_111_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-022-00742-2"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_112_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/GeoInformatics.2011.5980797"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_113_1","first-page":"93","volume-title":"12th International conference on geographic information science (GIScience 2023)","author":"Zhang Q.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zhang, Q., and Kang, Y., R., R., 2023. The Ethics of AI-Generated Maps: DALLE-2 and AI\u2019s Implications for Cartography (Short Paper). In 12th International conference on geographic information science (GIScience 2023), 93\u201398. Schloss Dagstuhl\u2013Leibniz-Zentrum f\u00fcr Informatik."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_114_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jag.2024.103976"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_115_1","unstructured":"Zheng O. et\u00a0al. 2023. ChatGPT is on the horizon: Could a large language model be all we need for intelligent transportation? arXiv preprint arXiv:2303.05382."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_116_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13658816.2022.2092115"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Geographical Information Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1080\/13658816.2025.2511227","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,20]],"date-time":"2025-08-20T10:31:59Z","timestamp":1755685919000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/doi\/full\/10.1080\/13658816.2025.2511227"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,2]]},"references-count":115,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,2]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1080\/13658816.2025.2511227"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13658816.2025.2511227","relation":{},"ISSN":["1365-8816","1362-3087"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1365-8816","type":"print"},{"value":"1362-3087","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,2]]},"assertion":[{"value":"The publishing and review policy for this title is described in its Aims & Scope.","order":1,"name":"peerreview_statement","label":"Peer Review Statement"},{"value":"http:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/action\/journalInformation?show=aimsScope&journalCode=tgis20","URL":"http:\/\/www.tandfonline.com\/action\/journalInformation?show=aimsScope&journalCode=tgis20","order":2,"name":"aims_and_scope_url","label":"Aim & Scope"},{"value":"2024-02-02","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-05-20","order":1,"name":"revised","label":"Revised","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-05-20","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-06-02","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}