{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,13]],"date-time":"2026-05-13T21:27:41Z","timestamp":1778707661447,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":238,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,1]],"date-time":"2020-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1585699200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Substance Abuse"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Modafinil is a nonamphetamine nootropic drug with an increasingly therapeutic interest due to its different sites of action and behavioral effects in comparison to cocaine or amphetamine. A review of modafinil (and of its prodrug adrafinil and its R-enantiomer armodafinil) chemical, pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic, toxicological, clinical and forensic aspects was performed, aiming to better understand possible health problems associated to its unconscious and unruled use. Modafinil is a racemate metabolized mainly in the liver into its inactive acid and sulfone metabolites, which undergo primarily renal excretion. Although not fully clarified, major effects seem to be associated to inhibition of dopamine reuptake and modulation of several other neurochemical pathways, namely noradrenergic, serotoninergic, orexinergic, histaminergic, glutamatergic and GABAergic. Due its wake-promoting effects, modafinil is used for the treatment of daily sleepiness associated to narcolepsy, obstructive sleep apnea and shift work sleep disorder. Its psychotropic and cognitive effects are also attractive in several other pathologies and conditions that affect sleep structure, induce fatigue and lethargy, and impair cognitive abilities. Additionally, in health subjects, including students, modafinil is being used off-label to overcome sleepiness, increase concentration and improve cognitive potential. The most common adverse effects associated to modafinil intake are headache, insomnia, anxiety, diarrhea, dry mouth and raise in blood pressure and heart rate. Infrequently, severe dermatologic effects in children, including maculopapular and morbilliform rash, erythema multiforme and Stevens-Johnson Syndrome have been reported. Intoxication and dependence associated to modafinil are uncommon. Further research on effects and health implications of modafinil and its analogs is steel needed to create evidence-based policies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1080\/08897077.2019.1700584","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,17]],"date-time":"2020-01-17T18:03:45Z","timestamp":1579284225000},"page":"155-173","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Article Commentary: Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic of the Cognitive Enhancer Modafinil: Relevant Clinical and Forensic Aspects"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"41","author":[{"given":"Ana","family":"Sousa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Forensic Sciences, and Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal;"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7430-6297","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo Jorge","family":"Dinis-Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Forensic Sciences, and Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal;"},{"name":"IINFACTS - Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies, Department of Sciences, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, CRL, Gandra, Portugal;"},{"name":"UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,4,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-113011-143750"},{"key":"bibr2-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-2012-121186"},{"key":"bibr3-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2012.10.001"},{"key":"bibr4-08897077.2019.1700584","volume-title":"Cognition: theories and applications","author":"Reed SK","year":"2013","edition":"9"},{"key":"bibr5-08897077.2019.1700584","volume-title":"Nootropics and smart drugs: super boost your mental alertness, cognition, memory, focus, creativity and mood","author":"Siva J","year":"2012"},{"key":"bibr6-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03000311"},{"key":"bibr7-08897077.2019.1700584","volume-title":"Rang and Dale's pharmacology","author":"Rang HP","year":"2016","edition":"8"},{"key":"bibr8-08897077.2019.1700584","volume-title":"Basic & clinical pharmacology","author":"Katzung BG","year":"2018"},{"key":"bibr9-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/JCP.0000000000000963"},{"key":"bibr10-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13318-016-0362-1"},{"key":"bibr11-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.20344\/amp.5215"},{"issue":"6","key":"bibr12-08897077.2019.1700584","first-page":"494","volume":"25","author":"Dinis-Oliveira RJ","year":"2015","journal-title":"Toxicol Mech Methods."},{"key":"bibr13-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2016.09.001"},{"key":"bibr14-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2174\/0929867325666180821153316"},{"key":"bibr15-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0278-5846(89)90112-7"},{"key":"bibr16-08897077.2019.1700584","first-page":"Cd000207","volume":"3","author":"Tammenmaa-Aho I","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev"},{"key":"bibr17-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-017-2288-7"},{"key":"bibr18-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10522-017-9718-4"},{"key":"bibr19-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dolce G, Cecconi V, Zamponi A, Zylberman R, Maggi L, Battaglia A. Methodological approach to the clinical evaluation of nootropic drugs. Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany: Springer Berlin, Heidelberg; 1985:215\u2013222.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-70786-5_18"},{"key":"bibr20-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/ADM.0b013e3182479584"},{"key":"bibr21-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.therap.2017.10.006"},{"key":"bibr22-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.7b00374"},{"key":"bibr23-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2013.00139"},{"key":"bibr24-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.7b01313"},{"key":"bibr25-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2012.03.022"},{"key":"bibr26-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2165\/00003088-200342020-00002"},{"key":"bibr27-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2165\/00003495-200868130-00003"},{"key":"bibr28-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00007691-200304000-00009"},{"key":"bibr29-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/009127009903900312"},{"key":"bibr30-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/dta.2142"},{"key":"bibr31-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acschemneuro.8b00340"},{"key":"bibr32-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1552-4604.1998.tb04425.x"},{"key":"bibr33-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2007.09.035"},{"key":"bibr34-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2165\/11317740-000000000-00000"},{"key":"bibr35-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-014-0524-2"},{"issue":"6","key":"bibr36-08897077.2019.1700584","first-page":"664","volume":"28","author":"Robertson P","year":"2000","journal-title":"Drug Metab Dispos."},{"key":"bibr37-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/00912709922007534"},{"key":"bibr38-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1185\/030079906X80378"},{"key":"bibr39-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2165\/00023210-199809040-00006"},{"key":"bibr40-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/rcm.4044"},{"key":"bibr41-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/B:NERE.0000029559.20581.1a"},{"key":"bibr42-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2165\/00003088-200847010-00006"},{"issue":"4","key":"bibr43-08897077.2019.1700584","first-page":"170","volume":"48","author":"Darwish M","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pharmacopsychiatry."},{"key":"bibr44-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0091270011414572"},{"key":"bibr45-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40261-015-0330-6"},{"key":"bibr46-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinthera.2014.09.014"},{"key":"bibr47-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/00912700222011120"},{"key":"bibr48-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2011.04.015"},{"key":"bibr49-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2018.07.019"},{"key":"bibr50-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/10204"},{"key":"bibr51-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1460-9568.2000.00876.x"},{"key":"bibr52-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.21-05-01787.2001"},{"key":"bibr53-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/syn.20647"},{"key":"bibr54-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00169306"},{"key":"bibr55-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.13376"},{"key":"bibr56-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-4159.2006.03880.x"},{"key":"bibr57-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.npp.1301534"},{"key":"bibr58-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-017-0758-x"},{"key":"bibr59-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/ml1002025"},{"key":"bibr60-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.6b01373"},{"key":"bibr61-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2014.12.005"},{"key":"bibr62-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.v67n0406"},{"key":"bibr63-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-394623-2.00014-7"},{"key":"bibr64-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.93.24.14128"},{"key":"bibr65-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3940(97)00962-2"},{"key":"bibr66-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.20-22-08620.2000"},{"key":"bibr67-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00001756-200111160-00032"},{"key":"bibr68-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ijnp\/pyx037"},{"key":"bibr69-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1164908"},{"key":"bibr70-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1552-4604.1998.tb04395.x"},{"key":"bibr71-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/00912700122010690"},{"key":"bibr72-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/00912700222011382"},{"key":"bibr73-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/17.suppl_8.S107"},{"issue":"1","key":"bibr74-08897077.2019.1700584","first-page":"49","volume":"1","author":"Nishino S","year":"1998","journal-title":"Sleep Res Online."},{"key":"bibr75-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1124\/pr.112.007054"},{"key":"bibr76-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1124\/jpet.106.106583"},{"key":"bibr77-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-5618.2009.00716.x"},{"key":"bibr78-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3789"},{"key":"bibr79-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2017.152"},{"key":"bibr80-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5213\/inj.2015.19.4.220"},{"key":"bibr81-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00001756-199709080-00016"},{"key":"bibr82-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3940(98)00629-6"},{"key":"bibr83-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0893-133X(98)00085-2"},{"key":"bibr84-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.10196"},{"key":"bibr85-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3908(00)00019-8"},{"key":"bibr86-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/NSS.S103462"},{"key":"bibr87-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2017.07.013"},{"key":"bibr88-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2018.06.008"},{"key":"bibr89-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-013-3232-4"},{"key":"bibr90-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2006.01.010"},{"key":"bibr91-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1517\/13543784.17.4.565"},{"key":"bibr92-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(92)91713-O"},{"key":"bibr93-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/syn.10127"},{"issue":"10","key":"bibr94-08897077.2019.1700584","first-page":"817","volume":"18","author":"Shelton J","year":"1995","journal-title":"Sleep."},{"key":"bibr95-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2018.04.006"},{"key":"bibr96-08897077.2019.1700584","volume-title":"Medication guide PROVIGIL (Modafinil) tablets","author":"FDA","year":"2015"},{"key":"bibr97-08897077.2019.1700584","volume-title":"Modafinil","author":"Greenblatt K","year":"2019"},{"key":"bibr98-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1756286419875622"},{"key":"bibr99-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11940-016-0429-y"},{"key":"bibr100-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-23739-8_23"},{"key":"bibr101-08897077.2019.1700584","volume-title":"Medication guide NUVIGIL (Armodafinil) tablets","author":"FDA","year":"2017"},{"key":"bibr102-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/NSS.S103467"},{"key":"bibr103-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s1389-9457(02)00240-x"},{"issue":"2","key":"bibr104-08897077.2019.1700584","first-page":"115","volume":"2","author":"Kaser M","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging."},{"key":"bibr105-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.jcp.0000104910.75206.b9"},{"key":"bibr106-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1586\/14737175.5.1.79"},{"key":"bibr107-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1461145712000326"},{"key":"bibr108-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2012.11.030"},{"key":"bibr109-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-013-0378-z"},{"key":"bibr110-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2014.09.013"},{"key":"bibr111-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2011.05.015"},{"key":"bibr112-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.08m04683"},{"key":"bibr113-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.09m05950gry"},{"key":"bibr114-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2013.07.039"},{"key":"bibr115-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13063-016-1537-4"},{"key":"bibr116-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.07r03982"},{"key":"bibr117-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2045125312441815"},{"key":"bibr118-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10401230490453743"},{"issue":"9","key":"bibr119-08897077.2019.1700584","first-page":"Cd009695","author":"Perez-Mana C","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev."},{"issue":"6","key":"bibr120-08897077.2019.1700584","first-page":"830","volume":"59","author":"Karila L","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rev Prat."},{"key":"bibr121-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10826084.2016.1276597"},{"key":"bibr122-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psc.2012.03.012"},{"key":"bibr123-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1300.021"},{"key":"bibr124-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2015.08.005"},{"key":"bibr125-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2009.04.015"},{"key":"bibr126-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2015.12.004"},{"key":"bibr127-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2009.09050613"},{"key":"bibr128-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2017.41"},{"key":"bibr129-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000471507"},{"key":"bibr130-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2015.14121582"},{"key":"bibr131-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2010.09.043"},{"key":"bibr132-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-011-2472-4"},{"key":"bibr133-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/hup.878"},{"key":"bibr134-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appet.2003.11.003"},{"key":"bibr135-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/JCP.0000000000000080"},{"key":"bibr136-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2008.04.008"},{"key":"bibr137-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00520-014-2486-7"},{"key":"bibr138-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2377-13-153"},{"key":"bibr139-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/pon.1903"},{"key":"bibr140-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/JCP.0000000000000442"},{"key":"bibr141-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.25083"},{"key":"bibr142-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1200\/jco.2005.23.16_suppl.8012"},{"key":"bibr143-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.24287"},{"key":"bibr144-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0269216309106872"},{"key":"bibr145-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2014.57.6769"},{"key":"bibr146-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11764-017-0597-0"},{"key":"bibr147-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2015.12.010"},{"key":"bibr148-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00520-015-2996-y"},{"key":"bibr149-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cct.2017.11.005"},{"key":"bibr150-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2017.10.011"},{"key":"bibr151-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0039919"},{"key":"bibr152-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2017.08.012"},{"key":"bibr153-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2017.07.042"},{"key":"bibr154-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinthera.2016.02.004"},{"key":"bibr155-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2011.03.010"},{"issue":"3","key":"bibr156-08897077.2019.1700584","first-page":"293","volume":"3","author":"Rugino T","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat."},{"key":"bibr157-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2005-0617"},{"key":"bibr158-08897077.2019.1700584","first-page":"19","volume":"25","author":"Kotagal S","year":"2018","journal-title":"Paediatr Respir Rev."},{"key":"bibr159-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5664\/jcsm.7132"},{"key":"bibr160-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.v67n0120"},{"key":"bibr161-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/cap.2000.10.311"},{"key":"bibr162-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/01.HYP.0000158267.66763.63"},{"key":"bibr163-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2009.351"},{"key":"bibr164-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881108091072"},{"key":"bibr165-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2515\/therapie\/2013007"},{"key":"bibr166-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5664\/jcsm.27935"},{"key":"bibr167-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2018.07.023"},{"key":"bibr168-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.162.10.1983-a"},{"key":"bibr169-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2010.83"},{"key":"bibr170-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2016.09.034"},{"key":"bibr171-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0376-8716(02)00335-6"},{"key":"bibr172-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2008.02437.x"},{"key":"bibr173-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-017-4650-5"},{"key":"bibr174-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2015.04.012"},{"key":"bibr175-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ijnp\/pyx112"},{"key":"bibr176-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3357\/AMHP.5298.2019"},{"key":"bibr177-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2016.01.013"},{"key":"bibr178-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsat.2011.12.014"},{"key":"bibr179-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsat.2007.12.003"},{"key":"bibr180-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0021042"},{"key":"bibr181-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/1064-1297.15.2.123"},{"key":"bibr182-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02247379"},{"key":"bibr183-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00008877-200203000-00002"},{"key":"bibr184-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10550490290088027"},{"key":"bibr185-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-002-1080-8"},{"key":"bibr186-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-2999(96)00182-3"},{"key":"bibr187-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2012.07.039"},{"key":"bibr188-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2016.00420"},{"key":"bibr189-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1369-1600.2011.00341.x"},{"key":"bibr190-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/026988110001400107"},{"issue":"5","key":"bibr191-08897077.2019.1700584","volume":"14","author":"Kate N","year":"2012","journal-title":"Prim Care Companion CNS Disord."},{"key":"bibr192-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/0976-500X.149149"},{"key":"bibr193-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0004867414565480"},{"key":"bibr194-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.9758\/cpn.2016.14.4.402"},{"key":"bibr195-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/JCP.0000000000000446"},{"key":"bibr196-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02244069"},{"key":"bibr197-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpba.2005.04.050"},{"key":"bibr198-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/C6CC03640F"},{"key":"bibr199-08897077.2019.1700584","volume-title":"Prohibited list January 2020","author":"World Anti-Doping Code (WADA)","year":"2020"},{"key":"bibr200-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-011-4863-0"},{"key":"bibr201-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1249\/01.MSS.0000128146.12004.4F"},{"key":"bibr202-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/0253-7613.59928"},{"key":"bibr203-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2015.07.028"},{"key":"bibr204-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(15)00004-8"},{"key":"bibr205-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00406-014-0537-1"},{"key":"bibr206-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02791072.2012.736845"},{"key":"bibr207-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/dar.12005"},{"key":"bibr208-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0144402"},{"key":"bibr209-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/dar.12977"},{"key":"bibr210-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/hup.456"},{"key":"bibr211-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-002-1250-8"},{"key":"bibr212-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-004-1926-3"},{"key":"bibr213-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-010-2111-5"},{"key":"bibr214-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/hup.596"},{"key":"bibr215-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.jcp.0000155816.21467.25"},{"key":"bibr216-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2003.12.016"},{"key":"bibr217-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2017.07.031"},{"key":"bibr218-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2005.07.019"},{"key":"bibr219-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881109105899"},{"key":"bibr220-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2012.07.009"},{"key":"bibr221-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-007-0885-x"},{"key":"bibr222-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5867\/medwave.2015.05.6166"},{"key":"bibr223-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2869.1997.00032.x"},{"key":"bibr224-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/JCP.0000000000001085"},{"key":"bibr225-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881116668591"},{"key":"bibr226-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40263-013-0084-8"},{"key":"bibr227-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13181-010-0017-6"},{"key":"bibr228-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15563650802175595"},{"key":"bibr229-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5694\/mja15.00791"},{"key":"bibr230-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5664\/jcsm.27550"},{"key":"bibr231-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2011.07.007"},{"key":"bibr232-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.24869\/psyd.2019.369"},{"issue":"11","key":"bibr233-08897077.2019.1700584","first-page":"763","volume":"52","author":"Joos L","year":"2010","journal-title":"Tijdschr Psychiatr."},{"key":"bibr234-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5620\/eht.2012.27.e2012007"},{"key":"bibr235-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/bioe.12273"},{"key":"bibr236-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10728-012-0224-1"},{"key":"bibr237-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2015.09.012"},{"key":"bibr238-08897077.2019.1700584","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1747-597X-9-8"}],"container-title":["Substance Abuse"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1080\/08897077.2019.1700584","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1080\/08897077.2019.1700584","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1080\/08897077.2019.1700584","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T08:52:42Z","timestamp":1777625562000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1080\/08897077.2019.1700584"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,4]]},"references-count":238,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,4]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1080\/08897077.2019.1700584"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/08897077.2019.1700584","relation":{},"ISSN":["0889-7077","1547-0164"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0889-7077","type":"print"},{"value":"1547-0164","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,4]]}}}