{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T10:49:23Z","timestamp":1782989363832,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"IOP Publishing","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782950400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/publishingsupport.iopscience.iop.org\/iop-standard\/v1"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782950400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/info\/page\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782950400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/publishingsupport.iopscience.iop.org\/questions\/alternative-author-rights-policies\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782950400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/publishingsupport.iopscience.iop.org\/questions\/alternative-author-rights-policies\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Taishan Industrial Experts Program"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["82227802"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["82227802"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key R&D Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2025YFC2426200"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025YFC2426200"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["iopscience.iop.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Phys. Med. Biol."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]]},"abstract":"Abstract<\/jats:title>\n \n Objective.<\/jats:italic>\n Magnetic particle imaging (MPI) enables real-time, radiation-free tracking of magnetic nanoparticle\u2013coated instruments, making it highly suitable for interventional procedures. This study proposes a harmonic-aware transformer framework that directly predicts catheter tip positions from raw MPI voltage signals, eliminating the need for image reconstruction and reducing computational latency.\n Approach.<\/jats:italic>\n The framework incorporates frequency-domain preprocessing to isolate the 2nd\u20138th drive-field harmonics, enhancing the signal-to-noise ratio while preserving motion-relevant features. A transformer architecture with six encoder layers and eight attention heads is employed to learn spatio-temporal dependencies across the three receive axes (\n \n \n \n <\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n x<\/mml:mi>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n ,\n \n \n \n <\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n y<\/mml:mi>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n ,\n \n \n \n <\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n z<\/mml:mi>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n ) for accurate three dimensional position estimation. The model is trained on simulated MPI signals and evaluated on real\n in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n datasets under standard, bending, and heartbeat-like motion conditions.\n Main results.<\/jats:italic>\n The proposed method achieves sub-millimeter localization accuracy, with a minimum\n \n \n \n <\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n \n L<\/mml:mi>\n 2<\/mml:mn>\n <\/mml:msub>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n error of\n \n \n \n <\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n 0.103<\/mml:mn>\n \u00b1<\/mml:mo>\n 0.092<\/mml:mn>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n mm and mean absolute errors (MAEs) of\n \n \n \n <\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n 0.039<\/mml:mn>\n \u00b1<\/mml:mo>\n 0.046<\/mml:mn>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n mm,\n \n \n \n <\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n 0.054<\/mml:mn>\n \u00b1<\/mml:mo>\n 0.049<\/mml:mn>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n mm, and\n \n \n \n <\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n 0.060<\/mml:mn>\n \u00b1<\/mml:mo>\n 0.044<\/mml:mn>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n mm along the\n \n \n \n <\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n (<\/mml:mo>\n x<\/mml:mi>\n ,<\/mml:mo>\n y<\/mml:mi>\n ,<\/mml:mo>\n z<\/mml:mi>\n )<\/mml:mo>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n axes, respectively, for the bending dataset. Across all datasets, the MAE ranges from\n \n \n \n <\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n 0.165<\/mml:mn>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n mm to\n \n \n \n <\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n 0.655<\/mml:mn>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n mm, demonstrating consistent performance. The optimized inference achieves a latency of\n \n \n \n <\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n 0.55<\/mml:mn>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n ms per frame and a throughput of approximately\n \n \n \n <\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n 1800<\/mml:mn>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n frames\u2009s\n \n \n \n <\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n \n \n \u22121<\/mml:mo>\n <\/mml:msup>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n , confirming real-time capability.\n Significance.<\/jats:italic>\n Compared with conventional MPI-guided approaches relying on image reconstruction, the proposed framework provides improved accuracy, reduced latency, and enhanced robustness under complex motion conditions. These results highlight the potential of harmonic-aware transformer models as efficient and scalable solutions for real-time catheter localization in interventional MPI.\n <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6560\/ae794f","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T22:56:11Z","timestamp":1780700171000},"page":"135015","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Harmonic-aware transformer for real-time catheter localization in interventional procedures of magnetic particle imaging"],"prefix":"10.1088","volume":"71","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1405-8022","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Abuobaida M","family":"Khair","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Control Science and Engineering, Shandong University"},{"name":"Al-Neelain University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenjing","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Control Science and Engineering, Shandong University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoli","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Weifang Xinli Superconducting Magnet Technology Co., Ltd"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Moritz","family":"Wildgruber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Hospital, LMU Munich"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4407-7045","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Xiaopeng","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Control Science and Engineering, Shandong University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"266","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"pmbae794fbib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3301","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2022.3183948","type":"journal-article","article-title":"First dedicated balloon catheter for magnetic particle imaging","volume":"41","author":"Ahlborg","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. 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All rights, including for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies, are reserved.","name":"copyright_information","label":"Copyright Information"},{"value":"2026-03-26","name":"date_received","label":"Date Received","group":{"name":"publication_dates","label":"Publication dates"}},{"value":"2026-06-05","name":"date_accepted","label":"Date Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_dates","label":"Publication dates"}},{"value":"2026-07-02","name":"date_epub","label":"Online publication date","group":{"name":"publication_dates","label":"Publication dates"}}]}}