{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T20:01:18Z","timestamp":1792785678786,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"IOP Publishing","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1792022400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/publishingsupport.iopscience.iop.org\/iop-standard\/v1"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1792022400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/info\/page\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1792022400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/publishingsupport.iopscience.iop.org\/questions\/alternative-author-rights-policies\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1792022400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/publishingsupport.iopscience.iop.org\/questions\/alternative-author-rights-policies\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["62394310"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62394310"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["iopscience.iop.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Phys. Med. Biol."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,28]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    <jats:italic>Objective.<\/jats:italic>\n                    Depth-of-interaction (DOI)-enabled long axial field-of-view (LAFOV) positron emission tomography (PET) can mitigate parallax-induced resolution degradation, but DOI modeling substantially expands the lines-of-response space and increases computational cost. This study aimed to develop a scalable reconstruction framework for DOI-enabled LAFOV-PET.\n                    <jats:italic>Approach.<\/jats:italic>\n                    We present an optimized multi-GPU reconstruction framework based on list-mode ordered-subsets expectation maximization. The framework targets the major computational bottlenecks of DOI-enabled LAFOV-PET reconstruction, including sensitivity image calculation and Monte Carlo-based scatter estimation.\n                    <jats:italic>Main results.<\/jats:italic>\n                    The extended IQ phantom demonstrated near-linear scalability across multiple GPUs for sensitivity image calculation and Monte Carlo-based scatter estimation. Additional Derenzo and hybrid anthropomorphic phantom studies validated the imaging benefits of DOI modeling, including improved spatial resolution and performance under realistic imaging conditions.\n                    <jats:italic>Significance.<\/jats:italic>\n                    The proposed framework improves the scalability of DOI-enabled LAFOV-PET reconstruction by enabling its dominant computational components to efficiently utilize available GPU resources, establishing a foundation for high-performance reconstruction in next-generation PET systems.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6560\/aeabe8","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T22:53:39Z","timestamp":1790204019000},"page":"205004","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Multi-GPU parallel framework for DOI-enabled long axial field-of-view PET image reconstruction"],"prefix":"10.1088","volume":"71","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7721-5956","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Zhao","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Peking University"},{"name":"Peking University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Peking University"},{"name":"Peking University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhengkun","family":"Dong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Peking University"},{"name":"Peking University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-5891-6189","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Wei","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Peking University"},{"name":"Peking University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qiyu","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Shenzhen Bay Laboratory"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qiushi","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Peking University"},{"name":"Peking University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8003-8778","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Zhaoheng","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Peking University"},{"name":"Peking University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"266","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6560\/ad2230","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Development of a Monte Carlo-based scatter correction method for total-body PET using the uEXPLORER PET\/CT scanner","volume":"69","author":"Bayerlein","year":"2024","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1118\/1.2174132","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Method for transforming CT images for attenuation correction in PET\/CT imaging","volume":"33","author":"Carney","year":"2006","journal-title":"Med. Phys."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1109\/TMI.2013.2252913","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Distributed MLEM: an iterative tomographic image reconstruction algorithm for distributed memory architectures","volume":"32","author":"Cui","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging"},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6775","DOI":"10.1118\/1.3661998","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Fully 3D list-mode time-of-flight PET image reconstruction on GPUs using CUDA","volume":"38","author":"Cui","year":"2011","journal-title":"Med. Phys."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1186\/s40658-024-00645-z","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Evaluation of lesion contrast in the walk-through long axial FOV PET scanner simulated with XCAT anthropomorphic phantoms","volume":"11","author":"Dadgar","year":"2024","journal-title":"EJNMMI Phys."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6560\/acc722","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Performance evaluation of the PennPET explorer with expanded axial coverage","volume":"68","author":"Dai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpc.2023.109008","type":"journal-article","article-title":"MCGPU-PET: an open-source real-time Monte Carlo PET simulator","volume":"296","author":"Herraiz","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Phys. Commun."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1109\/TNS.2002.998686","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Performance analysis of an improved 3-D PET Monte Carlo simulation and scatter correction","volume":"49","author":"Holdsworth","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1109\/42.870263","type":"journal-article","article-title":"List-mode maximum-likelihood reconstruction applied to positron emission mammography (PEM) with irregular sampling","volume":"19","author":"Huesman","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging"},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib10","first-page":"89","type":"journal-article","article-title":"A fast algorithm to calculate the exact radiological path through a pixel or voxel space","volume":"6","author":"Jacobs","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Comput. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6560\/ade112","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Development of an ultrasensitive small animal PET with 4-layer DOI detectors for sub-second dynamic rodent imaging","volume":"70","author":"Kang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6560\/ab5610","type":"journal-article","article-title":"gPET: a GPU-based, accurate and efficient Monte Carlo simulation tool for PET","volume":"64","author":"Lai","year":"2019","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.2967\/jnumed.123.265929","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Performance evaluation of the uMI Panorama PET\/CT system in accordance with the National Electrical Manufacturers Association NU 2-2018 standard","volume":"65","author":"Li","year":"2024a","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1320","DOI":"10.2967\/jnumed.124.267767","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Performance characteristics of the NeuroEXPLORER, a next-generation human brain PET\/CT imager","volume":"65","author":"Li","year":"2024b","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib15","first-page":"pp 2695","type":"conference-proceedings","article-title":"Communication optimization and auto load balancing in parallel OSEM algorithm for fully 3-D SPECT reconstruction","volume":"vol 5","author":"Ma","year":"2005"},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6560\/aadac1","type":"journal-article","article-title":"CASToR: a generic data organization and processing code framework for multi-modal and multi-dimensional tomographic reconstruction","volume":"63","author":"Merlin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6560\/ac16bd","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Simulating NEMA characteristics of the modular total-body J-PET scanner\u2014an economic total-body PET from plastic scintillators","volume":"66","author":"Moskal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6560\/ae3a31","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Object independent scatter sensitivities for PET, applied to scatter estimation through fast Monte Carlo simulation","volume":"71","author":"No\u00eb","year":"2026","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.2967\/jnumed.121.261972","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Performance characteristics of the Biograph Vision Quadra PET\/CT system with a long axial field of view using the NEMA NU 2-2018 standard","volume":"63","author":"Prenosil","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4887","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/50\/20\/010","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Statistical dynamic image reconstruction in state-of-the-art high-resolution PET","volume":"50","author":"Rahmim","year":"2005","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4239","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/49\/18\/004","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Statistical list-mode image reconstruction for the high resolution research tomograph","volume":"49","author":"Rahmim","year":"2004","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib22","first-page":"pp 1","type":"conference-proceedings","article-title":"IMAS: a full-body PET system with enhanced TOF and DOI capabilities","author":"Sanchez","year":"2024"},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10TR03","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6560\/abf276","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Advanced Monte Carlo simulations of emission tomography imaging systems with GATE","volume":"66","author":"Sarrut","year":"2021","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1007\/s11227-010-0397-z","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Parallel medical image reconstruction: from graphics processing units (GPU) to grids","volume":"57","author":"Schellmann","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Supercomput."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnume.2023.1324562","type":"journal-article","article-title":"PARALLELPROJ\u2014an open-source framework for fast calculation of projections in tomography","volume":"3","author":"Schramm","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib26","article-title":"Ultra-Low Dose PET Imaging Challenge 2024","author":"Shi","year":"2024","type":"other"},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.2967\/jnumed.120.250597","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Performance evaluation of the uEXPLORER total-body PET\/CT scanner based on NEMA NU 2-2018 with additional tests to characterize PET scanners with a long axial field of view","volume":"62","author":"Spencer","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib28","first-page":"p M-17-087","type":"conference-proceedings","article-title":"Optimization of coincidence sorting protocol for total-body PET based on ring and sector difference","author":"Wang","year":"2023"},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5244","DOI":"10.1002\/mp.15051","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Anatomically aided PET image reconstruction using deep neural networks","volume":"48","author":"Xie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Med. Phys."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/5.0006104","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Acceleration of PET-based industrial internal defect image reconstruction using FPGA","volume":"10","author":"Yao","year":"2020","journal-title":"AIP Adv."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2024.3522335","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Depth of interaction in PET detector design: performance optimization with light-sharing window","volume":"74","author":"Yu","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib32","first-page":"pp 1","type":"conference-proceedings","article-title":"Impact of depth-of-interaction on image resolution in long axial-FOV PET","author":"Yu","year":"2014"},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6560\/aba6f9","type":"journal-article","article-title":"A GPU-accelerated fully 3D OSEM image reconstruction for a high-resolution small animal PET scanner using dual-ended readout detectors","volume":"65","author":"Zeng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2265","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1917379117","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Subsecond total-body imaging using ultrasensitive positron emission tomography","volume":"117","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib35","first-page":"pp 27","type":"conference-proceedings","article-title":"Component-based normalization for image reconstruction in total-body PET with DOI capability","author":"Zhao","year":"2025"},{"key":"pmbaeabe8bib36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/59\/3\/541","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Efficient fully 3D list-mode TOF PET image reconstruction using a factorized system matrix with an image domain resolution model","volume":"59","author":"Zhou","year":"2014","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."}],"container-title":["Physics in Medicine &amp; Biology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/1361-6560\/aeabe8","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"am","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/1361-6560\/aeabe8\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/1361-6560\/aeabe8","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/1361-6560\/aeabe8\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/1361-6560\/aeabe8\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/1361-6560\/aeabe8\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/1361-6560\/aeabe8\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"similarity-checking"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/1361-6560\/aeabe8\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T07:14:52Z","timestamp":1792048492000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/1361-6560\/aeabe8"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,28]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/1361-6560\/aeabe8","relation":{},"ISSN":["0031-9155","1361-6560"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0031-9155","type":"print"},{"value":"1361-6560","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Multi-GPU parallel framework for DOI-enabled long axial field-of-view PET image reconstruction","name":"article_title","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Physics in Medicine & Biology","name":"journal_title","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"paper","name":"article_type","label":"Article Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine. All rights, including for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies, are reserved.","name":"copyright_information","label":"Copyright Information"},{"value":"2025-11-03","name":"date_received","label":"Date Received","group":{"name":"publication_dates","label":"Publication dates"}},{"value":"2026-09-23","name":"date_accepted","label":"Date Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_dates","label":"Publication dates"}},{"value":"2026-10-15","name":"date_epub","label":"Online publication date","group":{"name":"publication_dates","label":"Publication dates"}}]}}