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Neural Eng."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>\n                  <jats:italic>Objective.<\/jats:italic> A wearable brain\u2013computer interface is proposed and validated experimentally in relation to the real-time control of an endless runner game by self-paced motor imagery(MI). <jats:italic>Approach.<\/jats:italic> Electroencephalographic signals were recorded via eight wet electrodes. The processing pipeline involved a filter-bank common spatial pattern approach and the combination of three binary classifiers exploiting linear discriminant analysis. This enabled the discrimination between imagining left-hand, right-hand, and no movement. Each mental task corresponded to an avatar horizontal motion within the game. Twenty-three healthy subjects participated to the experiments and their data are made publicly available. A custom metric was proposed to assess avatar control performance during the gaming phase. The game consisted of two levels, and after each, participants completed a questionnaire to self-assess their engagement and gaming experience. <jats:italic>Main results.<\/jats:italic> The mean classification accuracies resulted 73%, 73%, and 67% for left-rest, right-rest, and left-right discrimination, respectively. In the gaming phase, subjects with higher accuracies for left-rest and right-rest pair exhibited higher performance in terms of the custom metric. Correlation of the offline and real-time performance was investigated. The left-right MI did not correlate to the gaming phase performance due to the poor mean accuracy of the calibration. Finally, the engagement questionnaires revealed that level 1 and level 2 were not perceived as frustrating, despite the increasing difficulty. <jats:italic>Significance.<\/jats:italic> The work contributes to the development of wearable and self-paced interfaces for real-time control. These enhance user experience by guaranteeing a more natural interaction with respect to synchronous neural interfaces. Moving beyond benchmark datasets, the work paves the way to future applications on mobile devices for everyday use.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/adc205","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,18]],"date-time":"2025-03-18T22:53:21Z","timestamp":1742338401000},"page":"026032","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["A wearable brain-computer interface to play an endless runner game by self-paced motor imagery"],"prefix":"10.1088","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5192-5922","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pasquale","family":"Arpaia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3761-2401","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Antonio","family":"Esposito","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-0080-4546","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Enza","family":"Galasso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-3033-0794","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Fortuna","family":"Galdieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6261-7741","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Angela","family":"Natalizio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"266","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"jneadc205bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X00034026","article-title":"The representing brain: neural correlates of motor intention and imagery","volume":"17","author":"Jeannerod","year":"1994","journal-title":"Behav. 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