{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,1]],"date-time":"2026-06-01T23:25:17Z","timestamp":1780356317356,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":123,"publisher":"IOP Publishing","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]],"date-time":"2025-09-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756857600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]],"date-time":"2025-09-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756857600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/info\/page\/text-and-data-mining"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000070","name":"National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["P41 EB018783 (Wolpaw)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P41 EB018783 (Wolpaw)"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000070","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Stratton Veterans Affairs Medical Center- Albany","award":["NA"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA"]}]},{"name":"Spinal Cord Injury Research Board - NYSDOH","award":["C37714GG (Gupta)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["C37714GG (Gupta)"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["iopscience.iop.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Neural Eng."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>\n                  <jats:italic>Objective.<\/jats:italic> Reliable extraction of single-trial somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) is essential for developing brain-computer interface (BCI) applications to support rehabilitation after brain injury. For real-time feedback, these responses must be extracted prospectively on every trial, with minimal post-processing and artifact correction. However, noninvasive SEPs elicited by electrical stimulation at recommended parameter settings (0.1\u20130.2 msec pulse width, stimulation at or below motor threshold, 2\u20135 Hz frequency) are typically small and variable, often requiring averaging across multiple trials or extensive processing. Here, we describe and evaluate ways to optimize the stimulation setup to enhance the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of noninvasive single-trial SEPs, enabling more reliable extraction. <jats:italic>Approach.<\/jats:italic> SEPs were recorded with scalp electroencephalography in tibial nerve stimulation in thirteen healthy people, and two people with CNS injuries. Three stimulation frequencies (lower than recommended: 0.2 Hz, 1 Hz, 2 Hz) with a pulse width longer than recommended (1 msec), at a stimulation intensity based on H-reflex and M-wave at Soleus muscle were evaluated. Detectability of single-trial SEPs relative to background noise was tested offline and in a pseudo-online analysis, followed by a real-time demonstration. <jats:italic>Main<\/jats:italic>\n                  <jats:italic>results.<\/jats:italic> SEP N70 was observed predominantly at the central scalp regions. Online decoding performance was significantly higher with Laplacian filter. Generalization performance showed an expected degradation, at all frequencies, with an average decrease of 5.9% (multivariate) and 6.5% (univariate), with an AUC score ranging from 0.78\u20130.90. The difference across stimulation frequencies was not significant. In individuals with injuries, AUC of 0.86 (incomplete spinal cord injury) and 0.81 (stroke) was feasible. Real-time demonstration showed SEP detection with AUC of 0.89. <jats:italic>Significance.<\/jats:italic> This study describes and evaluates a system for extracting single-trial SEPs in real-time, suitable for a BCI-based operant conditioning. It enhances SNR of individual SEPs by alternate electrical stimulation parameters, dry headset, and optimized signal processing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/adfd8a","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,20]],"date-time":"2025-08-20T22:50:40Z","timestamp":1755730240000},"page":"056004","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Extracting robust single-trial somatosensory evoked potentials for non-invasive brain computer interfaces"],"prefix":"10.1088","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2139-8559","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Disha","family":"Gupta","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8606-0789","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jodi","family":"Brangaccio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Helia","family":"Mojtabavi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0805-1315","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jonathan","family":"Wolpaw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4253-6976","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"N Jeremy","family":"Hill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"266","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"jneadfd8abib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2012.10.062","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Automatic denoising of single-trial evoked potentials","volume":"66","author":"Ahmadi","year":"2013","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"jneadfd8abib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ohx.2024.e00619","type":"journal-article","article-title":"SyncGenie: a programmable event synchronization device for neuroscience research","volume":"21","author":"Alkhoury","year":"2024","journal-title":"HardwareX"},{"key":"jneadfd8abib3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-5597(92)90082-M","type":"journal-article","article-title":"The relationship between human long-latency somatosensory evoked potentials recorded from the cortical surface and from the scalp","volume":"84","author":"Allison","year":"1992","journal-title":"Electroencephalogr. 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