{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T08:03:10Z","timestamp":1784707390787,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"IOP Publishing","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784678400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784678400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/info\/page\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784678400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/publishingsupport.iopscience.iop.org\/questions\/alternative-author-rights-policies\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784678400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/publishingsupport.iopscience.iop.org\/questions\/alternative-author-rights-policies\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Research Council","award":["Outer-Ret101053186"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Outer-Ret101053186"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003977","name":"Israel Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["1355\/17"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1355\/17"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003977","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["iopscience.iop.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Neural Eng."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]},"abstract":"Abstract<\/jats:title>\n \n Objective.<\/jats:italic>\n Cognitive load refers to the amount of mental effort required to process information and perform tasks. It has a strong impact on both learning and task performance and, therefore, plays a central role in cognitive neuroscience, psychology, neurology, human-machine interaction, and education research. Despite its significance, measuring cognitive load is challenging due to its complex and dynamic nature, influenced by task complexity, individual differences, and emotional states. While standard methods are based on subjective self-reports, numerous objective methods have been explored to assess cognitive load, such as electroencephalography (EEG), heart rate variability, and performance-based metrics. Despite these efforts, it remains challenging to objectively measure cognitive load in stationary and even more so in freely moving individuals.\n Approach.<\/jats:italic>\n In this study, a wireless wearable system was employed to collect facial bio-potential markers and systematically compare their sensitivity to cognitive load. A dedicated task paradigm was developed and validated to induce graded cognitive load, allowing precise synchronization of physiological signals with task events. Facial muscle activity, eye movements, and brain activity were acquired simultaneously using a single facial electrode array.\n Main results.<\/jats:italic>\n Across nine participants, entropy-based features tracked cognitive load more closely than conventional band-power measures. Facial EMG was the most informative modality: a cross-subject (leave-one-subject-out) model predicted the NASA-TLX weighted workload score with a mean Spearman correlation\n \n \n \n <\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n \u03c1<\/mml:mi>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n = 0.792 (95% CI [0.747, 0.836]; mean absolute error\n \n \n \n <\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n \n \u2248<\/mml:mo>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n 4.3, on a NASA-TLX 0\u2013100 scale), and a single forehead-EMG entropy feature (the EMG-band entropy of forehead channel Ch14, above the right eyebrow) was selected in every cross-subject fold, generalizing across all participants without subject-specific calibration. An EEG-only model carried weaker but genuine cross-subject information (\n \n \n \n <\/jats:tex-math>\n \n \n \u03c1<\/mml:mi>\n <\/mml:mrow>\n <\/mml:math>\n <\/jats:inline-formula>\n = 0.739), whereas EOG features did not pass the feature-selection threshold in this seated paradigm.\n Significance.<\/jats:italic>\n Facial bio-potentials offer a practical, wearable system for objective cognitive load assessment. An outdoor pilot experiment further demonstrated electrophysiological measures under non-laboratory conditions. These findings offer insights into the suitability of different physiological indicators for assessing cognitive load, particularly the informativeness of facial EMG for seated assessment and the robustness of blink-based measures under ambulatory motion, contributing to the future development of practical measurement techniques in dynamic everyday settings.\n <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2552\/ae89e9","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]],"date-time":"2026-07-14T02:51:32Z","timestamp":1783997492000},"page":"046029","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Multimodal quantification of cognitive load using a printed wearable facial bio-potential system"],"prefix":"10.1088","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-6040-072X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Dvir","family":"Teitelbaum","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Tel Aviv University"},{"name":"Tel Aviv University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-1896-9976","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Rawan","family":"Ibrahim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tel Aviv University"},{"name":"Tel Aviv University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-3023-0531","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Hila","family":"Man","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tel Aviv University"},{"name":"Tel Aviv University"},{"name":"Tel Aviv University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nitzan","family":"Luxembourg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tel Aviv University"},{"name":"Tel Aviv University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniele","family":"Re","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tel Aviv University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4213-9575","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Yael","family":"Hanein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tel Aviv University"},{"name":"Tel Aviv University"},{"name":"Tel Aviv University"},{"name":"X-trodes"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"266","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"jneae89e9bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog1202_4","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Cognitive load during problem solving: effects on learning","volume":"12","author":"Sweller","year":"1988","journal-title":"Cogn. 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