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Biomim."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    <jats:italic>Objective.<\/jats:italic>\n                    To achieve robust and energy-efficient target-speed regulation in an aquatic biohybrid system by integrating closed-loop feedback with frequency-modulated lateral-line neuromodulation in free-swimming eels.\n                    <jats:italic>Approach.<\/jats:italic>\n                    We present a closed-loop controlled eel-computer biohybrid system that modulates the swimming behavior of\n                    <jats:italic>Monopterus albus<\/jats:italic>\n                    via electrical stimulation of lateral-line nerves. A lightweight microelectronic backpack with stimulation electrodes was noninvasively attached to the eel to enable real-time motion control. Monophasic pulses with optimized parameters (anterior lateral-line nerves, ALLNs: 4.0 V; posterior lateral-line nerves, PLLNs: 2.5 V; 10\u2013100 Hz; 30% duty cycle) elicited directional locomotion. A proportional\u2013derivative (PD) feedback controller dynamically adjusted the stimulation frequency based on real-time velocity measurements to regulate predefined swimming speeds.\n                    <jats:italic>Main results.<\/jats:italic>\n                    PLLNs stimulation induced forward swimming at 9.0\u201317.8 cm s\n                    <jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>\n                    , exhibiting a strong negative correlation between speed and frequency (\n                    <jats:italic>\u03c1<\/jats:italic>\n                    = \u22120.96). Conversely, ALLNs stimulation produced backward swimming at 6.9\u20139.5 cm s\n                    <jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>\n                    with a moderately strong negative correlation (\n                    <jats:italic>\u03c1<\/jats:italic>\n                    = \u22120.89). Compared with fixed-frequency stimulation, the closed-loop scheme reduced the velocity deviations by 63.7% (forward) and 50.6% (backward). Body-mass-normalized external stimulation power ranged from 0.87 to 1.54 mW g\n                    <jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>\n                    .\n                    <jats:italic>Significance.<\/jats:italic>\n                    These findings demonstrate bidirectional closed-loop speed regulation in freely swimming eels and provide a compact, noninvasive framework for adaptive, energy-efficient aquatic biohybrid robotic systems based on lateral-line-driven neural interfaces.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-3190\/ae9260","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,29]],"date-time":"2026-07-29T22:56:09Z","timestamp":1785365769000},"page":"046033","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Closed-loop speed control for a biohybrid neural interface using frequency-modulated lateral-line stimulation"],"prefix":"10.1088","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5213-6821","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Luo","family":"Yu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College, Chongqing University"},{"name":"School of Intelligent Engineering, Chongqing City Management College"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lin","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Army Medical University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lintao","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chongqing Health Center for Women and Children (Women and Children\u2019s Hospital of Chongqing Medical University; NHC Key Laboratory of Birth Defects and Reproductive Health)"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yu","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College, Chongqing University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6551-0410","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Mengjia","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College, Chongqing University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongying","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College, Chongqing University"},{"name":"Chongqing Engineering Research Center of Medical Electronics Technology"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-5130-4032","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Xitian","family":"Pi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College, Chongqing University"},{"name":"Chongqing Engineering Research Center of Medical Electronics Technology"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"266","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"bbae9260bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"0036","DOI":"10.34133\/olar.0036","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Current status and technical challenges in the development of biomimetic robotic fish-type submersible","volume":"3","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ocean-Land-Atmos. 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