{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T20:02:18Z","timestamp":1792785738110,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":22,"publisher":"IOP Publishing","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790121600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790121600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/info\/page\/text-and-data-mining"}],"funder":[{"name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","award":["RGPIN-2024-04779"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RGPIN-2024-04779"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h531d29","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Canada Research Chairs","award":["CRC-2021- 00057"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CRC-2021- 00057"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0517h6h17","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["iopscience.iop.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Biomed. Phys. Eng. Express"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Wearable strain sensors are a promising technology for continuous health monitoring; however, existing validation approaches present a fundamental trade-off. Bench-top methods offer high resolution and repeatability but lack fidelity to real-life use conditions, whereas human-subject testing provides physiological relevance with limited resolution, repeatability and coverage across use cases. We present a novel validation platform\u2014a limb volume phantom model (LVPM)\u2014that bridges this gap by integrating a soft pneumatic artificial (McKibben) muscle with a compliant limb phantom and a closed-loop, camera-based control system for precise circumferential regulation. The LVPM provides a 24 cm-long region of uniform circumference along its longitudinal axis and enables programmable control of the circumference from 30\u201337 cm with an optical diameter resolution of approximately 1 mm, &lt; 0.5% steady-state error, and settling times below 40 s. To demonstrate its utility, a soft, highly stretchable capacitive strain sensor with an interdigitated electrode architecture was evaluated using the LVPM and compared against conventional uniaxial tensile testing and tape-based measurements on a human limb. The LVPM achieved a measurement range and resolution comparable to uniaxial testing while producing strain-response trends that more closely resemble\n                    <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic>\n                    behavior, without the resolution and repeatability limitations inherent to manual measurements. These results establish the LVPM as an effective and practical validation platform for wearable strain sensors, offering a balanced combination of biomechanical compliance, controllability, repeatability, measurement range, and resolution.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1088\/2057-1976\/aea7a4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T22:48:37Z","timestamp":1789512517000},"page":"055021","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A pneumatic McKibben muscle-based limb volume phantom model for wearable strain sensor validation"],"prefix":"10.1088","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0598-833X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Nick","family":"Levinski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Waterloo"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-1832-7197","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lavan","family":"Sumanan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Waterloo"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-0709-8514","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Derry","family":"Tong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Waterloo"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-0201-7498","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cameron","family":"Sjaarda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Waterloo"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-7808-9615","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jacob","family":"Kowalski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Waterloo"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9249-7397","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Carolyn L","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Waterloo"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"266","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1142\/S0218957718500100","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Practical considerations for standardized recording of muscle mechanical properties using a myometric device: recording site, muscle length, state of contraction and prior activity","volume":"21","author":"Agyapong-Badu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Musculoskelet. Res."},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2892-6","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Ultra-sensitive and resilient compliant strain gauges for soft machines","volume":"587","author":"Araromi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2497","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2023.3276424","type":"conference-proceedings","article-title":"A human lower limb mechanical phantom for the testing of knee exoskeletons","volume":"31","author":"Barrutia","year":"2023"},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1108\/01439911211268642","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Artificial muscles and soft gripping: a review of technologies and applications","volume":"39","author":"Bogue","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ind. Robot."},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib5","first-page":"2011","type":"web-resource","article-title":"Anthropometric reference data for children and adults: United States","author":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention","year":"2016"},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering11040382","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Limb volume measurements: a comparison of circumferential techniques and optoelectronic systems against water displacement","volume":"11","author":"Farina","year":"2024","journal-title":"Bioeng"},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.3390\/proceedings2019032002","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Knitted coil for inductive plethysmography","volume":"32","author":"Fobelets","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proceedings"},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5922","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2018.8513565","type":"conference-proceedings","article-title":"Ambulatory sensor for circumference monitoring of lower limbs","author":"Gehin","year":"2018"},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e17","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kead355","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Rapid handheld measurements of skin and subcutaneous tissue stiffness in systemic sclerosis","volume":"63","author":"Ghosh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rheumatology (Oxford)"},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.101761","type":"other","article-title":"Rehabilitation of the Human Bone-Muscle System","author":"Gong","year":"2022"},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0038-1635117","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Diagnosis and staging of lymphedema","volume":"32","author":"Greene","year":"2018","journal-title":"Semin. Plast. Surg."},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2173","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-032-30159-8_10","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Hyperelastic and viscoelastic characterization of silicone elastomersas bio-fidelic soft tissue simulants in prosthetics","volume":"2026","author":"Han\u017eeli\u010d","year":"2026","journal-title":"Adv. Dig. Human Mod. III. DHM"},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1007\/s10544-013-9770-z","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Design and test of a MEMS strain-sensing device for monitoring artificial knee implants","volume":"15","author":"Hasenkamp","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomed. Microdevices"},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2024.0361","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Biomechanics of soft biological tissues and organs, mechanobiology, homeostasis and modelling","volume":"22","author":"Holzapfel","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"952","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2012.01.017","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Characterization of a hyper-viscoelastic phantom mimicking biological soft tissue using an abdominal pneumatic driver with magnetic resonance elastography (MRE)","volume":"45","author":"Leclerc","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib16","author":"Levinski","year":"2025","type":"other"},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1080\/10790268.2008.11753987","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Investigation of soft-tissue stiffness alteration in denervated human tissue using an ultrasound indentation system","volume":"31","author":"Makhsous","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Spinal Cord Med."},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3406","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2020.2976309","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Simple, low-hysteresis, foldable, fabric pneumatic artificial muscle","volume":"5","author":"Naclerio","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett."},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.33137\/cpoj.v8i2.45759","type":"journal-article","article-title":"A biofidelic mock residual limb for prosthetic socket testing","volume":"8","author":"Phillips","year":"2025","journal-title":"Can. Prosthet. Orthot. J."},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmrt.2023.07.185","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Wearable strain sensors for human motion detection and health monitoring based on hybrid graphite-textile flexible electrodes","volume":"26","author":"Sonil","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Mater. Res. Technol."},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiomech.2025.106650","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Biomechanical characterization of cadaveric thigh skin for development of biofidelic simulants","volume":"129","author":"Yadav","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Biomech."},{"key":"bpexaea7a4bib22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2250","DOI":"10.3390\/mi14122250","type":"journal-article","article-title":"Thread-embedded-in-PDMS wearable strain sensor for real-time monitoring of human joint motion","volume":"14","author":"Yang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Micromachines"}],"container-title":["Biomedical Physics &amp; Engineering Express"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/2057-1976\/aea7a4","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"am","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/2057-1976\/aea7a4\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/2057-1976\/aea7a4","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/2057-1976\/aea7a4\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/2057-1976\/aea7a4\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/2057-1976\/aea7a4\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/2057-1976\/aea7a4\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"similarity-checking"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/2057-1976\/aea7a4\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T06:23:56Z","timestamp":1790144636000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/2057-1976\/aea7a4"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"references-count":22,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/2057-1976\/aea7a4","relation":{"has-review":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1088\/2057-1976\/AEA7A4\/v1\/decision1","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1088\/2057-1976\/AEA7A4\/v1\/review1","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1088\/2057-1976\/AEA7A4\/v2\/review1","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1088\/2057-1976\/AEA7A4\/v2\/decision1","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1088\/2057-1976\/AEA7A4\/v2\/response1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["2057-1976"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2057-1976","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]]},"assertion":[{"value":"A pneumatic McKibben muscle-based limb volume phantom model for wearable strain sensor validation","name":"article_title","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Biomedical Physics & Engineering Express","name":"journal_title","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"paper","name":"article_type","label":"Article Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2026 The Author(s). Published by IOP Publishing Ltd","name":"copyright_information","label":"Copyright Information"},{"value":"2026-05-14","name":"date_received","label":"Date Received","group":{"name":"publication_dates","label":"Publication dates"}},{"value":"2026-09-15","name":"date_accepted","label":"Date Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_dates","label":"Publication dates"}},{"value":"2026-09-23","name":"date_epub","label":"Online publication date","group":{"name":"publication_dates","label":"Publication dates"}}]}}