{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,11]],"date-time":"2026-04-11T02:23:21Z","timestamp":1775874201935,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"IOP Publishing","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,13]],"date-time":"2024-02-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1707782400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,13]],"date-time":"2024-02-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1707782400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/info\/page\/text-and-data-mining"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Research Council","award":["820254"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["820254"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001691","name":"Japan Society for the Promotion of Science","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["20H00354"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20H00354"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001691","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001659","name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["437214324"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["437214324"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001659","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100017697","name":"Graphene Flagship","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["881603"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["881603"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100017697","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["iopscience.iop.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Mach. Learn.: Sci. Technol."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>The most widely used method for obtaining high-quality two-dimensional (2D) materials is through mechanical exfoliation of bulk crystals. Manual identification of suitable flakes from the resulting random distribution of crystal thicknesses and sizes on a substrate is a time-consuming, tedious task. Here, we present a platform for fully automated scanning, detection, and classification of 2D materials, the source code of which we make openly available. Our platform is designed to be accurate, reliable, fast, and versatile in integrating new materials, making it suitable for everyday laboratory work. The implementation allows fully automated scanning and analysis of wafers with an average inference time of 100 ms for images of 2.3 Mpixels. The developed detection algorithm is based on a combination of the flakes\u2019 optical contrast toward the substrate and their geometric shape. We demonstrate that it is able to detect the majority of exfoliated flakes of various materials, with an average recall (AR50) between 67% and 89%. We also show that the algorithm can be trained with as few as five flakes of a given material, which we demonstrate for the examples of few-layer graphene, WSe<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>, MoSe<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>, CrI<jats:sub>3<\/jats:sub>, 1T-TaS<jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub> and hexagonal BN. Our platform has been tested over a two-year period, during which more than 10<jats:sup>6<\/jats:sup> images of multiple different materials were acquired by over 30 individual researchers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1088\/2632-2153\/ad2287","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,25]],"date-time":"2024-01-25T22:27:54Z","timestamp":1706221674000},"page":"015027","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["An open-source robust machine learning platform for real-time detection and classification of 2D material flakes"],"prefix":"10.1088","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-1069-5778","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jan-Lucas","family":"Uslu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-8316-523X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Taoufiq","family":"Ouaj","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-1691-0340","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"David","family":"Tebbe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7230-0294","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Alexey","family":"Nekrasov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jo Henri","family":"Bertram","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-9467-9096","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marc","family":"Sch\u00fctte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3701-8119","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Kenji","family":"Watanabe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1467-3105","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Takashi","family":"Taniguchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2359-2718","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Bernd","family":"Beschoten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0898-3860","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Lutz","family":"Waldecker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4958-7362","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christoph","family":"Stampfer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"266","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"mlstad2287bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12385","article-title":"Van der Waals heterostructures","volume":"499","author":"Geim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"722","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2010.172","article-title":"Boron nitride substrates for high-quality graphene electronics","volume":"5","author":"Dean","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8429","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms9429","article-title":"Raman spectroscopy as probe of nanometre-scale strain variations in graphene","volume":"6","author":"Neumann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1500222","article-title":"Ultrahigh-mobility graphene devices from chemical vapor deposition on reusable copper","volume":"1","author":"Banszerus","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevX.7.021026","article-title":"Excitonic linewidth approaching the homogeneous limit in MoS2-based van der Waals heterostructures","volume":"7","author":"Cadiz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. X"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"832","DOI":"10.1038\/s41565-019-0520-0","article-title":"Dielectric disorder in two-dimensional materials","volume":"14","author":"Raja","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2868-6","article-title":"Correlated insulating states at fractional fillings of moir\u00e9 superlattices","volume":"587","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03366-w","article-title":"Flavour Hund\u2019s coupling, Chern gaps and charge diffusivity in moir\u00e9 graphene","volume":"592","author":"Park","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abb8754","article-title":"Tuning electron correlation in magic-angle twisted bilayer graphene using Coulomb screening","volume":"371","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/2053-1583\/ab1e0a","article-title":"Production and processing of graphene and related materials","volume":"7","author":"Backes","year":"2020","journal-title":"2D Mater."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1229","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.2c09253","article-title":"Putting high-index Cu on the map for high-yield, dry-transferred CVD graphene","volume":"17","author":"Burton","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1002\/inf2.12164","article-title":"Wafer-scale vertical van der Waals heterostructures","volume":"3","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"InfoMat"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202108258","article-title":"Growth of 2D materials at the wafer scale","volume":"34","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/natrevmats.2016.42","article-title":"Van der Waals heterostructures and devices","volume":"1","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mater."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0502848102","article-title":"Two-dimensional atomic crystals","volume":"102","author":"Novoselov","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1899","DOI":"10.1039\/D1CS00503K","article-title":"Understanding, discovery and synthesis of 2D materials enabled by machine learning","volume":"51","author":"Ryu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1413","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-03723-w","article-title":"Autonomous robotic searching and assembly of two-dimensional crystals to build van der Waals superlattices","volume":"9","author":"Masubuchi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6316","DOI":"10.1007\/s12274-018-2155-0","article-title":"Intelligent identification of two-dimensional nanostructures by machine-learning optical microscopy","volume":"11","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nano Res."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmat.2019.03.003","article-title":"Rapid identification of two-dimensional materials via machine learning assisted optic microscopy","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mater."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2768624","article-title":"Making graphene visible","volume":"91","author":"Blake","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1038\/s41524-019-0262-4","article-title":"Deep-learning-based quality filtering of mechanically exfoliated 2D crystals","volume":"5","author":"Saito","year":"2019","journal-title":"npj Comput. Mater."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.202000953","article-title":"Deep-learning-enabled fast optical identification and characterization of 2D materials","volume":"32","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1038\/s41699-020-0137-z","article-title":"Deep-learning-based image segmentation integrated with optical microscopy for automatically searching for two-dimensional materials","volume":"4","author":"Masubuchi","year":"2020","journal-title":"npj 2D Mater. Appl."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib24","article-title":"Demonstration website of the interface for sorting and filtering of detected flakes"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib25","article-title":"Python code of the setup control software, detection algorithm and training routines"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.5b04258","article-title":"Reliable exfoliation of large-area high-quality flakes of graphene and other two-dimensional materials","volume":"9","author":"Huang","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4930574","article-title":"Visibility of two-dimensional layered materials on various substrates","volume":"118","author":"M\u00fcller","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMC.1979.4310076","article-title":"A threshold selection method from gray-level histograms","volume":"9","author":"Otsu","year":"1979","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1625","DOI":"10.1021\/nn800307s","article-title":"Total color difference for rapid and accurate identification of graphene","volume":"2","author":"Gao","year":"2008","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1117\/12.317034","article-title":"Flat-field correction technique for digital detectors","volume":"3336","author":"Seibert","year":"1998","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1999","DOI":"10.1109\/TIP.2019.2946979","article-title":"Spaghetti labeling: directed acyclic graphs for block-based connected components labeling","volume":"29","author":"Bolelli","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Image Process."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1038\/s41699-018-0084-0","article-title":"Classifying optical microscope images of exfoliated graphene flakes by data-driven machine learning","volume":"3","author":"Masubuchi","year":"2019","journal-title":"npj 2D Mater. Appl."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5808","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-85159-9","article-title":"Universal image segmentation for optical identification of 2D materials","volume":"11","author":"Sterbentz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib34","first-page":"2825","article-title":"Scikit-learn: machine learning in python","volume":"12","author":"Pedregosa","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1007\/s10825-018-1171-3","article-title":"Solcore: a multi-scale, Python-based library for modelling solar cells and semiconductor materials","volume":"17","author":"Alonso-\u00c1lvarez","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Comput. Electron."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3475393","article-title":"Optical constants of graphene measured by spectroscopic ellipsometry","volume":"97","author":"Weber","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1002\/pip.4670030303","article-title":"Optical properties of intrinsic silicon at 300 K","volume":"3","author":"Green","year":"1995","journal-title":"Prog. Photovolt., Res. Appl."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1205","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSA.55.001205","article-title":"Interspecimen comparison of the refractive index of fused silica","volume":"55","author":"Malitson","year":"1965","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/2053-1583\/aab0cf","article-title":"Two-dimensional models for the optical response of thin films","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"2D Mater."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevApplied.13.064017","article-title":"Fully automated identification of two-dimensional material samples","volume":"13","author":"Greplova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Appl."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-10602-1_48","article-title":"Microsoft COCO: common objects in context","volume":"vol 8693","author":"Lin","year":"2014"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib42","article-title":"Detectron2","author":"Wu","year":"2019"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eml.2020.100771","article-title":"Automated identification and characterization of two-dimensional materials via machine learning-based processing of optical microscope images","volume":"39","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Extrem. Mech. Lett."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.carbon.2022.03.035","article-title":"Modified UNet++ with attention gate for graphene identification by optical microscopy","volume":"195","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Carbon"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib45","article-title":"Machine learning-based automatic graphene detection with color correction for optical microscope images","author":"Siao","year":"2021"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.35848\/1882-0786\/ac8270","article-title":"Enhancement of the contrast for a hexagonal boron nitride monolayer placed on a silicon nitride\/silicon substrate","volume":"15","author":"Hattori","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Express"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.2c06053","article-title":"Experimental observation of ABCB stacked tetralayer graphene","volume":"16","author":"Wirth","year":"2022","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"mlstad2287bib48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1038\/s41699-023-00394-0","article-title":"Tailoring the dielectric screening in WS2-graphene heterostructures","volume":"7","author":"Tebbe","year":"2023","journal-title":"npj 2D Mater. Appl."},{"key":"mlstad2287bib49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6528\/acf2a0","article-title":"Chemically detaching hbn crystals grown at atmospheric pressure and high temperature for high-performance graphene devices","volume":"34","author":"Ouaj","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nanotechnology"}],"container-title":["Machine Learning: Science and Technology"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/2632-2153\/ad2287","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"am","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/2632-2153\/ad2287\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/2632-2153\/ad2287","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/2632-2153\/ad2287\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/2632-2153\/ad2287\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/2632-2153\/ad2287\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/2632-2153\/ad2287\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"am","intended-application":"similarity-checking"},{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/2632-2153\/ad2287\/pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,13]],"date-time":"2024-02-13T07:54:51Z","timestamp":1707810891000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/iopscience.iop.org\/article\/10.1088\/2632-2153\/ad2287"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,13]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,13]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1088\/2632-2153\/ad2287","relation":{},"ISSN":["2632-2153"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2632-2153","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,13]]},"assertion":[{"value":"An open-source robust machine learning platform for real-time detection and classification of 2D material flakes","name":"article_title","label":"Article Title"},{"value":"Machine Learning: Science and Technology","name":"journal_title","label":"Journal Title"},{"value":"paper","name":"article_type","label":"Article Type"},{"value":"\u00a9 2024 The Author(s). Published by IOP Publishing Ltd","name":"copyright_information","label":"Copyright Information"},{"value":"2023-08-15","name":"date_received","label":"Date Received","group":{"name":"publication_dates","label":"Publication dates"}},{"value":"2024-01-25","name":"date_accepted","label":"Date Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_dates","label":"Publication dates"}},{"value":"2024-02-13","name":"date_epub","label":"Online publication date","group":{"name":"publication_dates","label":"Publication dates"}}]}}