{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T23:55:01Z","timestamp":1777938901786,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"3-4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,1]],"date-time":"2025-02-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1738368000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Tissue Engineering Part A"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Long bone and craniofacial bone fractures amount to an overwhelming expenditure for patients and health care systems each year. Overall, 5\u201310% of all bone fractures result in some form of delayed or nonunion fractures. Nonunions occur from insufficient mechanical stabilization or a compromised wound environment lacking in vasculature and progenitor cells. The current standard for treating these critical-sized fractures and defects is the use of autologous bone grafts. However, advancements in tissue engineering have cultivated a shift in scientific efforts toward harnessing the body\u2019s own regenerative resources. As such, research on fracture healing has shifted as well. Transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF\u03b2-1) has been studied in fracture healing for over 25 years, though many of these studies have been\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                    or in small animal models. The few studies in large animals have disagreement due to the heterogeneity within the experimental design. Because TGF\u03b2-1 plays such a crucial role in the bone healing process, this systematic review investigates the application of TGF\u03b2-1 in various carrier vehicles for repairing bone injuries in large animal and rabbit models. A systematic search was conducted in PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science (from database construction\u2014October 2024). A total of 244 articles were screened, and 24 studies were included for review. Most large animal long bone studies used coated titanium implants, while most rabbit long bone studies used some form of degradable polymer constructs. TGF\u03b2-1 doses in large animal long bone studies range from 0.005 to 750 \u00b5g, doses in large animal calvaria and mandible studies range from 1 to 5000 \u00b5g, and doses in rabbit long bone studies range from 0.05 to 120 \u00b5g. Nineteen out of 24 articles reviewed indicate successful use of TGF\u03b2-1 for bone regeneration compared with experimental controls. It is clear that dose and controlled release of growth factor play a crucial role in defect closure, but outcome measures and success criteria were inconsistent across studies. More studies with consistent experimental designs are critical for understanding the therapeutic potential of TGF\u03b2-1 in fracture repair, but overall, this review indicates that TGF\u03b2-1 can be used alone or in conjunction with other growth factors to accelerate successful bone repair.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.tea.2024.0226","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,26]],"date-time":"2024-12-26T12:00:48Z","timestamp":1735214448000},"page":"126-138","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["TGF\u03b2-1 and Healing of Bone Defects in Large Animal and Rabbit Models: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"31","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9962-3341","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara","family":"Trbojevic","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, Swanson School of Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA."},{"name":"Center for Craniofacial Regeneration, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Juan M.","family":"Taboas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, Swanson School of Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA."},{"name":"Center for Craniofacial Regeneration, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA."},{"name":"Department of Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA."},{"name":"McGowan Institute of Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alejandro J.","family":"Almarza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, Swanson School of Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA."},{"name":"Center for Craniofacial Regeneration, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA."},{"name":"Department of Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA."},{"name":"McGowan Institute of Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1079-2104(96)80431-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00003086-199810001-00006"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.injury.2005.07.019"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrrheum.2014.164"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jor.23460"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15122845"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5704\/MOJ.1907.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20225805"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fcl.2010.09.005"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/710302"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/230949900901700218"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-97573-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0039-3399522"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.teb.2018.0353"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/wdev.159"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ame2.12114"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00590-017-2063-0"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/BOT.0000000000001115"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_20_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actbio.2023.03.028"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_21_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/137823"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_22_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a021865"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_23_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2004-0001"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_24_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjoms.2012.05.014"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_3_4_25_2","article-title":"Advances in animal models for studying bone fracture healing","volume":"10","author":"Gao H","year":"2023","unstructured":"Gao H, , Huang J, , Wei Q, et al. 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