{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]],"date-time":"2026-06-29T00:03:24Z","timestamp":1782691404380,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":294,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,1]],"date-time":"2022-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648771200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Tissue Engineering Part B: Reviews"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Reconstruction of peripheral nerve injuries (PNIs) with substance loss remains challenging because of limited treatment solutions and unsatisfactory patient outcomes. Currently, nerve autografting is the first-line management choice for bridging critical-sized nerve defects. The procedure, however, is often complicated by donor site morbidity and paucity of nerve tissue, raising a quest for better alternatives. The application of other treatment surrogates, such as nerve guides, remains questionable, and it is inefficient in irreducible nerve gaps. More importantly, these strategies lack customization for personalized patient therapy, which is a significant drawback of these nerve repair options. This negatively impacts the fascicle-to-fascicle regeneration process, critical to restoring the physiological axonal pathway of the disrupted nerve. Recently, the use of additive manufacturing (AM) technologies has offered major advancements to the bioengineering solutions for PNI therapy. These techniques aim at reinstating the native nerve fascicle pathway using biomimetic approaches, thereby augmenting end-organ innervation. AM-based approaches, such as three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting, are capable of biofabricating 3D-engineered nerve graft scaffolds in a patient-specific manner with high precision. Moreover, realistic\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">in vitro<\/jats:italic>\n                    models of peripheral nerve tissues that represent the physiologically and functionally relevant environment of human organs could also be developed. However, the technology is still nascent and faces major translational hurdles. In this review, we spotlighted the clinical burden of PNIs and most up-to-date treatment to address nerve gaps. Next, a summarized illustration of the nerve ultrastructure that guides research solutions is discussed. This is followed by a contrast of the existing bioengineering strategies used to repair peripheral nerve discontinuities. In addition, we elaborated on the most recent advances in 3D printing and biofabrication applications in peripheral nerve modeling and engineering. Finally, the major challenges that limit the evolution of the field along with their possible solutions are also critically analyzed.\n                  <\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Impact statement<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Complex nerve injuries, including critical-sized gaps (&gt;3\u2009cm loss of substance), gaps involving nerve bifurcations, and those associated with ischemic environments, are difficult to manage. A biomimetic, personalized peripheral nerve tissue surrogate to address these injuries is lacking. The peripheral nerve repair market currently represents a multi-billion-dollar industry that is projected to expand. Given the clinical and economical dilemmas posed by this medical condition, it is crucial to devise novel and effective nerve substitutes. In this review article, we discuss progress in three-dimensional printing technologies, including biofabrication and nerve computer-aided design modeling, toward achieving a patient-specific and biomimetic nerve repair solution.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1089\/ten.teb.2020.0355","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,17]],"date-time":"2021-02-17T03:14:21Z","timestamp":1613531661000},"page":"295-335","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Three-Dimensional Engineered Peripheral Nerve: Toward a New Era of Patient-Specific Nerve Repair Solutions"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"28","author":[{"given":"Omar A.","family":"Selim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgical Biotechnology, Division of Surgery and Interventional Sciences, Royal Free Hospital, University College London (UCL), London, United Kingdom."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Saad","family":"Lakhani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgical Biotechnology, Division of Surgery and Interventional Sciences, Royal Free Hospital, University College London (UCL), London, United Kingdom."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Swati","family":"Midha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgical Biotechnology, Division of Surgery and Interventional Sciences, Royal Free Hospital, University College London (UCL), London, United Kingdom."},{"name":"Department of Surgical Biotechnology, Special Centre for Nanoscience, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Afshin","family":"Mosahebi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Plastic Surgery, Royal Free Hospital, University College London (UCL), London, United Kingdom."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Deepak M.","family":"Kalaskar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgical Biotechnology, Division of Surgery and Interventional Sciences, Royal Free Hospital, University College London (UCL), London, United Kingdom."},{"name":"Department of Surgical Biotechnology, Institute of Orthopaedics and Musculoskeletal Science, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital, University College London (UCL), Stanmore, United Kingdom."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_4_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0031-1281526"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.prs.0000172896.86594.07"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2011.0438"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_5_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mattod.2018.04.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_6_2","unstructured":"Nerve repair and regeneration market by products (nerve conduits nerve wraps vagus nerve stimulation sacral nerve stimulation spinal cord stimulation TENS TMS) application (neurorrhaphy nerve grafting stem cell therapy)\u2014Global Forecast to 2025. https:\/\/www.marketsandmarkets.com\/Market-Reports\/nerve-repair-regeneration-market-883.html"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_7_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5505\/tjtes.2011.75735"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_8_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13049-018-0546-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_9_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00005373-199807000-00025"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_10_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/2347-9264.169500"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_11_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3171\/jns.2001.94.6.0905"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_12_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12593-015-0187-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_13_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/MAO.0000000000000408"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_14_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/66.4.237"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_15_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/0971-3026.137025"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_16_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/74.4.491"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_17_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/698256"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_18_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-0712(21)00501-1"},{"key":"e_1_3_4_19_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haastert-Talini K. 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