{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T06:55:52Z","timestamp":1777877752846,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,1]],"date-time":"2021-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1630454400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Anthrax is a zoonosis caused by the spore-forming bacterium\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">Bacillus anthracis<\/jats:italic>\n                    , with potential for high fatality rate, especially in herbivores. Upon host death, spores can enter the soil surrounding the carcass and be ingested by other animals feeding in the same location. Accordingly, surveillance to quickly identify and decontaminate anthrax carcasses is crucial to outbreak prevention. In endemic anthrax areas such as Texas and Africa, vultures are used as a surveillance tool for identifying presence and location of dead animals. However, many anthrax outbreaks in the United States have occurred in areas outside the ranges of both black and turkey vultures. Here, we used a longitudinal camera trap survey at carcass sites in southwestern Montana to investigate the utility of facultative avian scavengers on disease and carcass surveillance in a reemerging anthrax risk zone. From August 2016 to September 2018, camera traps at 11 carcass sites were triggered 1996 times by avian scavengers. While the majority were facultative avian scavengers such as corvids and eagles, our results suggest that facultative scavengers cannot replace vultures as a surveillance tool in this ecosystem due to their absence during the anthrax risk period (June to August), reduced search efficiency, or low flight patterns. We found that the conditions in Montana likely parallel systems elsewhere in the continental United States. Using ecological niche models of\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">B. anthracis<\/jats:italic>\n                    distribution overlaid with relative abundance maps of turkey vultures, we found that much of North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Wyoming, Nebraska, and Iowa have areas of anthrax risk, but low or absent turkey vulture populations. Without vultures in these areas, surveillance capacity is reduced, and it becomes more difficult to identify anthrax cases, meaning fewer carcasses are decontaminated, and consequently, outbreaks could become more frequent or severe.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1089\/vbz.2020.2747","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,2]],"date-time":"2021-06-02T12:08:36Z","timestamp":1622635716000},"page":"675-684","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Anthrax Surveillance and the Limited Overlap Between Obligate Scavengers and Endemic Anthrax Zones in the United States"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Morgan A.","family":"Walker","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Spatial Epidemiology and Ecology Research Laboratory, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA."},{"name":"Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Maria","family":"Uribasterra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spatial Epidemiology and Ecology Research Laboratory, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA."},{"name":"Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Valpa","family":"Asher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Turner Enterprises, Inc., Bozeman, Montana, USA."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wayne M.","family":"Getz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Environmental Sciences, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, USA."},{"name":"School of Mathematical Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sadie J.","family":"Ryan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA."},{"name":"Quantitative Disease Ecology and Conservation Laboratory, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA."},{"name":"College of Agriculture, Engineering, and Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jos\u00e9 Miguel","family":"Ponciano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0928-4831","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jason K.","family":"Blackburn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spatial Epidemiology and Ecology Research Laboratory, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA."},{"name":"Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_5_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3800(02)00349-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_3_1","first-page":"21","article-title":"Trends in North American vulture populations","author":"Avery ML","year":"2004","unstructured":"Avery ML. Trends in North American vulture populations. Proc Vertebr Pest Conf, 2004; 21.","journal-title":"Proc Vertebr Pest Conf"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7589\/2013-05-126"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7589\/2017-04-069"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_6_1","volume-title":"Applications of Data-Driven Modeling to Infectious Diseases in Africa: Anthrax in Wildlife and HIV in Humans","author":"Bellan SE","year":"2012","unstructured":"Bellan SE. Applications of Data-Driven Modeling to Infectious Diseases in Africa: Anthrax in Wildlife and HIV in Humans. California, USA: UC Berkeley, 2012."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210x.12021"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00181-13"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.33.2.2309"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7589\/2013-08-204"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-46.3.918"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7589\/2012-10-253"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00045608.2014.914834"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2016.04.001"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/4081485"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_16_1","first-page":"5","article-title":"Poaching with poison devastates African vultures","volume":"14","author":"Burton A","year":"2016","unstructured":"Burton A. 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