{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,30]],"date-time":"2026-05-30T01:02:28Z","timestamp":1780102948579,"version":"3.54.0"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,11]],"date-time":"2023-10-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1696982400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pages\/standard-publication-reuse-rights"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61872134"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61872134"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Science and Technology Development Center of the Ministry of Education","award":["2019J01020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019J01020"]}]},{"name":"Key Research and Development projects in Hunan Province","award":["2022SK2106"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022SK2106"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,22]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>Detecting if two functions in different compiled forms are similar has a wide range of applications in software security. We present a method that leverages both semantic and structural features of functions, learned by a neural-net model on the underlying control-flow graphs (CFGs). In particular, we devise a neural function-similarity regressor (NFSR) with attentions on dual CFGs. We train and evaluate NFSR on a dataset consisting of nearly 4 million functions from over 14 900 binary files. Experiments show that NFSR is superior to the SOTA models of SAFE, Gemini and GMN, especially for binary functions with large CFGs. An ablation study shows that attention on dual CFGs plays a significant role in detecting function similarities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/comjnl\/bxad095","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,13]],"date-time":"2023-10-13T08:55:37Z","timestamp":1697187337000},"page":"1710-1718","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Similarity Regression Of Functions In Different Compiled Forms With Neural Attentions On Dual Control-Flow Graphs"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"67","author":[{"given":"Yun","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering , Hunan University, Changsha , China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuling","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering , Hunan University, Changsha , China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ge","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science & School of Cyberspace Science , Xiangtan University, Xiangtan , China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jie","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Richard Miner School of Computer & Information Sciences , University of Massachusetts, Lowell, MA , USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref1","article-title":"open source security and analysis report","author":"Synopsys","year":"2022"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1109\/SP.2019.00003","article-title":"Asm2vec: boosting static representation robustness for binary clone search against code obfuscation and compiler optimization","volume-title":"2019 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP)","author":"Ding","year":"2019"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1145\/3133956.3134018","article-title":"Neural network-based graph embedding for cross-platform binary code similarity detection","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2017 ACM SIGSAC conference on computer and communications security","author":"Xu","year":"2017"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref4","first-page":"1145","article-title":"Order matters: Semantic-aware neural networks for binary code similarity detection","volume-title":"Proceedings of the AAAI conference on artificial intelligence","author":"Yu","year":"2020"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref5","first-page":"3835","article-title":"Graph matching networks for learning the similarity of graph structured objects","volume-title":"International conference on machine learning","author":"Li","year":"2019"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5082","DOI":"10.1002\/int.22752","article-title":"Focus: function clone identification on cross-platform","volume":"37","author":"Fu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"896","DOI":"10.1145\/3238147.3240480","article-title":"Vulseeker: A semantic learning based vulnerability seeker for cross-platform binary","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 33rd ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Automated Software Engineering","author":"Gao","year":"2018"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref8","first-page":"309","article-title":"Self-attentive function embeddings for binary similarity","volume-title":"Detection of Intrusions and Malware, and Vulnerability Assessment: 16th International Conference, DIMVA","author":"Massarelli","year":"2019"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref9","article-title":"Distributed representations of words and phrases and their compositionality","volume":"26","author":"Mikolov","year":"2013","journal-title":"Advances in neural information processing systems"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.14722\/ndss.2019.23492","article-title":"Neural machine translation inspired binary code similarity comparison beyond function pairs","volume-title":"Proceedings 2019 Network and Distributed System Security Symposium","author":"Zuo","year":"2019"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref11","article-title":"A structured self-attentive sentence embedding","author":"Lin","year":"2017","journal-title":"International Conference on Learning Representations."},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref12","article-title":"Graph attention networks","author":"Veli\u010dkovi\u0107","year":"2018","journal-title":"International Conference on Learning Representations."},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref13","first-page":"265","article-title":"TensorFlow: a system for Large-Scale machine learning","volume-title":"12th USENIX symposium on operating systems design and implementation (OSDI 16)","author":"Abadi","year":"2016"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1109\/TSE.2022.3231621","article-title":"Learning approximate execution semantics from traces for binary function similarity","volume-title":"IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering","author":"Pei","year":"2023"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1109\/SP.2016.17","article-title":"Sok:(state of) the art of war: Offensive techniques in binary analysis","volume-title":"2016 IEEE symposium on security and privacy (SP)","author":"Shoshitaishvili","year":"2016"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1145\/3176258.3176306","article-title":"Beyond precision and recall: understanding uses (and misuses) of similarity hashes in binary analysis","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Eighth ACM Conference on Data and Application Security and Privacy","author":"Pagani","year":"2018"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.14722\/ndss.2020.24311","article-title":"Deepbindiff: Learning program-wide code representations for binary diffing","volume-title":"Network and distributed system security symposium.","author":"Duan","year":"2020"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3446371","article-title":"A survey of binary code similarity","volume":"54","author":"Haq","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACM Comput. Surv."},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3533767.3534367","article-title":"Jtrans: Jump-aware transformer for binary code similarity detection","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 31st ACM SIGSOFT International Symposium on Software Testing and Analysis","author":"Wang","year":"2022"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1145\/2976749.2978370","article-title":"Scalable graph-based bug search for firmware images","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2016 ACM SIGSAC conference on computer and communications security","author":"Feng","year":"2016"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2020.114348","article-title":"Bindeep: a deep learning approach to binary code similarity detection","volume":"168","author":"Tian","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infsof.2020.106289","article-title":"Bvdetector: a program slice-based binary code vulnerability intelligent detection system","volume":"123","author":"Tian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Inf. Softw. Technol."},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102804","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2022.102804","article-title":"Ifattn: binary code similarity analysis based on interpretable features with attention","volume":"120","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1145\/3238147.3238199","article-title":"$\\alpha $ diff: cross-version binary code similarity detection with dnn","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 33rd ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Automated Software Engineering","author":"Liu","year":"2018"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref25","first-page":"102473","article-title":"Self: A method of searching for library functions in stripped binary code","volume-title":"Comput. Secur.","author":"Liu","year":"2021"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref26","first-page":"641","article-title":"Gake: Graph aware knowledge embedding","volume-title":"Proceedings of COLING 2016, the 26th International Conference on Computational Linguistics: Technical Papers","author":"Feng","year":"2016"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref27","article-title":"Watch your step: learning node embeddings via graph attention","volume":"31","author":"Abu-El-Haija","year":"2018","journal-title":"Advances in neural information processing systems"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1145\/2623330.2623732","article-title":"Deepwalk: Online learning of social representations","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 20th ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining","author":"Perozzi","year":"2014"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref29","article-title":"Graph2seq: graph to sequence learning with attention-based neural networks","author":"Xu","year":"2018"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref30","article-title":"Attention-based graph neural network for semi-supervised learning","author":"Thekumparampil","year":"2018"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref31","article-title":"Deeply learning molecular structure-property relationships using attention-and gate-augmented graph convolutional network","author":"Ryu","year":"2018"},{"key":"2024062312371250800_ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1666","DOI":"10.1145\/3219819.3219980","article-title":"Graph classification using structural attention","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 24th ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery & Data Mining","author":"Lee","year":"2018"}],"container-title":["The Computer Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/comjnl\/article-pdf\/67\/5\/1710\/58308057\/bxad095.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/comjnl\/article-pdf\/67\/5\/1710\/58308057\/bxad095.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,23]],"date-time":"2024-06-23T12:38:53Z","timestamp":1719146333000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/comjnl\/article\/67\/5\/1710\/7306809"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,11]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,11]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,22]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/comjnl\/bxad095","relation":{},"ISSN":["0010-4620","1460-2067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0010-4620","type":"print"},{"value":"1460-2067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2024,5]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,11]]}}}