{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,23]],"date-time":"2026-01-23T11:22:51Z","timestamp":1769167371713,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,23]],"date-time":"2025-08-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755907200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pages\/standard-publication-reuse-rights"}],"funder":[{"name":"Fund of Central Government for Local Science and Technology Development","award":["246Z0704G"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["246Z0704G"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>With the rapid proliferation of wireless Internet of Things (IoT) devices, there is a growing concern about the potential misuse of wireless IoT devices for unauthorized sensing and monitoring of daily activities. Individuals are increasingly aware of the risks related to unidentified wireless IoT devices. Therefore, there is an urgent need for a comprehensive approach to improve the transparency of wireless IoT devices. In view of this, we propose a mutual detection and identification approach for autonomously detecting and identifying wireless IoT devices based on encrypted traffic analysis. We develop an adaptive device detection algorithm that uses a mutual detection mechanism among devices to facilitate distributed detection tasks and gather encrypted traffic data. We also design a two-stage device identification method to identify the devices. Through experiments conducted on two publicly available datasets, the study achieved a classification accuracy of $ \\mathbf{100\\%}$ in distinguishing wireless IoT devices from other device types, as well as a high accuracy of $\\mathbf{99.59\\%}$ in identifying specific types of wireless IoT devices. These results highlight the efficacy and potential of the proposed method in enhancing the security and transparency of wireless IoT ecosystems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/comjnl\/bxaf101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,2]],"date-time":"2025-08-02T11:43:29Z","timestamp":1754135009000},"page":"90-107","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["A mutual detection method for wireless IoT devices based on encrypted traffic analysis"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"69","author":[{"given":"Yilin","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Cyber Security and Computer, Hebei University , Qiyidong Road, Baoding, 071000, Hebei ,","place":["China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Liang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Cyber Security and Computer, Hebei University , Qiyidong Road, Baoding, 071000, Hebei ,","place":["China"]},{"name":"Hebei Key Laboratory of High Trusted Information System, Hebei University , Qiyidong Road, Baoding, 071000, Hebei ,","place":["China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shaokang","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Cyber Security and Computer, Hebei University , Qiyidong Road, Baoding, 071000, Hebei ,","place":["China"]},{"name":"Hebei Key Laboratory of High Trusted Information System, Hebei University , Qiyidong Road, Baoding, 071000, Hebei ,","place":["China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Meng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Cyber Security and Computer, Hebei University , Qiyidong Road, Baoding, 071000, Hebei ,","place":["China"]},{"name":"Hebei Key Laboratory of High Trusted Information System, Hebei University , Qiyidong Road, Baoding, 071000, Hebei ,","place":["China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Haibo","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Cyber Security and Computer, Hebei University , Qiyidong Road, Baoding, 071000, Hebei ,","place":["China"]},{"name":"Hebei Key Laboratory of High Trusted Information System, Hebei University , Qiyidong Road, Baoding, 071000, Hebei ,","place":["China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref1","volume-title":"A Number of Internet of Things (IoT) Connected Devices Worldwide from 2019 to 2021, with Forecasts from 2022 to 2030","author":"Statista","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref2","volume-title":"9 Ways to Detect Hidden Cameras in Your Airbnb","author":"Harris","year":"2024"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref3","volume-title":"Airbnb has a Hidden-Camera Problem","author":"Staff","year":"2024"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref4","volume-title":"Airbnb Rules about Security Cameras"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref5","volume-title":"Couple Finds Hidden Camera in Cruise Ship Room","author":"Temblador","year":"2018"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref6","volume-title":"Should we be Searching for Hidden Spy Cameras in Airbnbs and Hotels?","author":"Wilkinson","year":"2019"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref7","volume-title":"Hundreds of Motel Guests Were Secretly Filmed and Live-Streamed Online","author":"Jeong","year":"2019"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1177\/1077801207302045","article-title":"Intimate partner violence, technology, and stalking","volume":"13","author":"Southworth","year":"2007","journal-title":"Violence Against Women"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref9","first-page":"634","article-title":"Efficient framework for hidden camera detection & jamming using IoT","volume-title":"Proceedings of 2022 6th International Conference on Trends in Electronics and Informatics (ICOEI). Tirunelveli, India, 28-30 April","author":"Pravin","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1145\/3485730.3485941","article-title":"LAPD: hidden spy camera detection using smartphone time-of-flight sensors","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 19th ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems. Portugal, 15-17 November","author":"Sami","year":"2021"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref11","first-page":"173","article-title":"CamRadar: hidden camera detection leveraging amplitude-modulated sensor images embedded in electromagnetic emanations","volume":"6","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Interact. Mobile Wearable Ubiquitous Technol."},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1109\/MPRV.2022.3187464","article-title":"See no evil: discovering covert surveillance devices using thermal imaging","volume":"21","author":"Zuniga","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Pervasive Comput"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref13","first-page":"3107","article-title":"HeatDeCam: detecting hidden spy cameras via thermal emissions","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2022 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. Los Angeles, CA, USA","author":"Yu","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3534593","article-title":"Csi:Despy: Enabling effortless spy camera detection via passive sensing of user activities and bitrate variations","volume":"6","author":"Salman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Interact. Mobile Wearable Ubiquitous Technol."},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref15","first-page":"1","article-title":"Dewicam: Detecting hidden wireless cameras via smartphones","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2018 on Asia Conference on Computer and Communications Security. Incheon, Republic of Korea","author":"Cheng","year":"2018"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1145\/3210240.3210332","article-title":"Detecting wireless spy cameras via stimulating and probing","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 16th Annual International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications, and Services. Munich, Germany","author":"Liu","year":"2018"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref17","article-title":"I always feel like somebody\u2019s sensing me! A framework to detect, identify, and localize clandestine wireless sensors","author":"Singh","year":"2020"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1145\/3458864.3467683","article-title":"Motioncompass: Pinpointing wireless camera via motion-activated traffic","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 19th Annual International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications, and Services. Virtual Event, Wisconsin","author":"He","year":"2021"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"714","DOI":"10.1145\/3564625.3564632","article-title":"Are there wireless hidden cameras spying on me?","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 38th Annual Computer Security Applications Conference. Austin, TX, USA","author":"Heo","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref20","first-page":"1347","article-title":"IoT sentinel: automated device-type identification for security enforcement in IoT","volume-title":"Proceedings of 2017 IEEE 37th International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems (ICDCS). Atlanta, GA, USA, 05-08 June","author":"Miettinen","year":"2017"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref21","first-page":"1347","article-title":"Smart recon: Network traffic fingerprinting for IoT device identification","volume-title":"Proceedings of 2022 IEEE 12th Annual Computing and Communication Workshop and Conference (CCWC). Las Vegas, NV, USA, 26-29 January","author":"Thom","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2025.111184","article-title":"RAGN: detecting unknown malicious network traffic using a robust adaptive graph neural network","volume":"262","author":"Akpaku","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput Netw"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref23","first-page":"1347","article-title":"An ann based approach for wireless device fingerprinting","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2023 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. Copenhagen, Denmark, November","author":"Kumar","year":"2023"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref24","first-page":"1095","article-title":"Lumos: identifying and localizing diverse hidden IoT devices in an unfamiliar environment","volume-title":"Proceedings of 31st USENIX Security Symposium (USENIX security 22). Boston, MA, August","author":"Sharma","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref25","first-page":"205","article-title":"A tagging solution to discover IoT devices in apartments","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 39th Annual Computer Security Applications Conference. Austin, TX, USA, 4\u20138 December","author":"Kaplan","year":"2022"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3603257","article-title":"FL4IoT: IoT device fingerprinting and identification using federated learning","volume":"4","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACM Trans Internet Things"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1109\/MPRV.2018.03367731","article-title":"N-BaIOT\u2014network-based detection of IoT botnet attacks using deep autoencoders","volume":"17","author":"Meidan","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Pervasive Comput"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1745","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2018.2866249","article-title":"Classifying IoT devices in smart environments using network traffic characteristics","volume":"18","author":"Sivanathan","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Mob Comput"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/WCNC.2019.8885429","article-title":"IoT device fingerprinting: machine learning based encrypted traffic analysis","volume-title":"Proceedings of 2019 IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference (WCNC). Marrakesh, Morocco, 15-18 April","author":"Msadek","year":"2019"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1402","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2019.2904364","article-title":"AuDI: toward autonomous IoT device-type identification using periodic communication","volume":"37","author":"Marchal","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE J Sel Areas Commun"},{"key":"2026011907115037900_ref31","first-page":"1302","article-title":"An ANN based approach for wireless device fingerprinting","volume-title":"Proceedings of 2017 2nd IEEE International Conference on Recent Trends in Electronics, Information & Communication Technology (RTEICT). Bangalore, India, 19-20 May","author":"Kumar","year":"2017"}],"container-title":["The Computer Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/comjnl\/article-pdf\/69\/1\/90\/64113669\/bxaf101.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/comjnl\/article-pdf\/69\/1\/90\/64113669\/bxaf101.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,19]],"date-time":"2026-01-19T12:12:02Z","timestamp":1768824722000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/comjnl\/article\/69\/1\/90\/8240170"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,23]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,23]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/comjnl\/bxaf101","relation":{},"ISSN":["0010-4620","1460-2067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0010-4620","type":"print"},{"value":"1460-2067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,23]]}}}