{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]],"date-time":"2026-03-19T21:46:06Z","timestamp":1773956766110,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773792000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":8,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Fondazione VRT"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Understanding attitudes towards STEM means quantifying the cognitive and emotional ways in which individuals, and potentially large language models too, conceptualise such subjects. This study uses behavioural forma mentis networks (BFMNs) to investigate the STEM-focused mindset, i.e. ways of associating and perceiving ideas, of 177 human participants and 177 artificial humans simulated by GPT-3.5. Participants were split in 3 groups\u2014trainees, experts and academics\u2014to compare the influence of expertise level on their mindsets. The results revealed that human forma mentis networks exhibited significantly higher clustering coefficients compared to GPT-3.5\u2019s, indicating that human mindsets displayed a tendency to form and close triads of conceptual associations while recollecting STEM ideas. Human experts, in particular, demonstrated robust clustering coefficients, reflecting better integration of STEM concepts into their cognitive networks. In contrast, GPT-3.5 produced sparser networks with weaker clustering, highlighting its limitations in replicating human-like mindsets. Furthermore, both human and GPT mindsets framed \u2018mathematics\u2019 in neutral\/positive terms, differently from STEM high-schoolers, researchers and other large language models sampled in other works. This research contributes to understanding how mindset structure can provide cognitive insights about memory structure and machine limitations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/comnet\/cnag004","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T23:17:23Z","timestamp":1773875843000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Cognitive networks highlight differences and similarities in the STEM mindsets of human and LLM-simulated trainees, experts and academics"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-4244-904X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edith","family":"Haim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CogNosco Lab, Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento , Rovereto, 38068,","place":["Italy"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lars","family":"van den Bergh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Data Analysis, Ghent University , Ghent, 9000,","place":["Belgium"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3384-7374","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cynthia S Q","family":"Siew","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, National University of Singapore , Singapore, 119077,","place":["Singapore"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3872-7689","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yoed N","family":"Kenett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Data and Decision Sciences, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology , Haifa, 3200003,","place":["Israel"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9803-0122","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniele","family":"Marinazzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Data Analysis, Ghent University , Ghent, 9000,","place":["Belgium"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1810-9699","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Massimo","family":"Stella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CogNosco Lab, Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento , Rovereto, 38068,","place":["Italy"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.3390\/bdcc7030124","article-title":"Cognitive network science reveals bias in gpt-3, gpt-3.5 turbo, and gpt-4 mirroring math anxiety in high-school students","volume":"7","author":"Abramski","year":"2023","journal-title":"BDCC"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8721.00196","article-title":"Math anxiety: personal, educational, and cognitive consequences","volume":"11","author":"Ashcraft","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr Dir Psychol Sci"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-006-9029-9","article-title":"The control-value theory of achievement emotions: assumptions, corollaries, and implications for educational research and practice","volume":"18","author":"Pekrun","year":"2006","journal-title":"Educ Psychol Rev"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1186\/s40594-021-00295-y","article-title":"STEM stereotypes predict students\u2019 STEM career interest via self-efficacy and outcome expectations","volume":"8","author":"Luo","year":"2021","journal-title":"IJ Stem Ed"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B5","first-page":"395","article-title":"To STEM or not to STEM? That is not the question","volume":"13","author":"Kubat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cypriot J. Educ. Sci"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/0959-4752(94)90018-3","article-title":"Capturing and modeling the process of conceptual change","volume":"4","author":"Vosniadou","year":"1994","journal-title":"Learn. Instr"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-228X.2007.00004.x","article-title":"We feel, therefore we learn: the relevance of affective and social neuroscience to education","volume":"1","author":"Immordino-Yang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mind Brain and Education"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2312911120","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2312911120","article-title":"Using cognitive psychology to understand GPT-like models needs to extend beyond human biases","volume":"120","author":"Stella","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0222870","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0222870","article-title":"Forma mentis networks quantify crucial differences in STEM perception between students and experts","volume":"14","author":"Stella","year":"2019","journal-title":"PloS One"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1037\/stl0000133","article-title":"Using network science to understand statistics anxiety among college students","volume":"5","author":"Siew","year":"2019","journal-title":"Scholarsh. Teach. Learn. Psychol"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"cnac012","DOI":"10.1093\/comnet\/cnac012","article-title":"Network psychometrics and cognitive network science open new ways for understanding math anxiety as a complex system","volume":"10","author":"Stella","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Complex Netw"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1007\/s42001-025-00446-z","article-title":"Forma mentis networks predict creativity ratings of short texts via interpretable artificial intelligence in human and AI-simulated raters","volume":"9","author":"Haim","year":"2026","journal-title":"J Comput Soc Sc"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-012-0260-7","article-title":"Better explanations of lexical and semantic cognition using networks derived from continued rather than single-word associations","volume":"45","author":"De Deyne","year":"2013","journal-title":"Behav Res Methods"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21459","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-11698-4","article-title":"Structural differences in the semantic networks of younger and older adults","volume":"12","author":"Wulff","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e255","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.255","article-title":"Forma mentis networks map how nursing and engineering students enhance their mindsets about innovation and health during professional growth","volume":"6","author":"Stella","year":"2020","journal-title":"PeerJ Comput Sci"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1037\/h0077714","article-title":"A circumplex model of affect","volume":"39","author":"Russell","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvb.2012.12.002","article-title":"Perfectionism and performance among STEM students","volume":"82","author":"Rice","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Vocat. Behav"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1111\/jasp.12371","article-title":"Effects of role model exposure on STEM and non-STEM student engagement","volume":"46","author":"Shin","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Appl Soc Pyschol"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1643","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-024-01959-9","article-title":"How large language models can reshape collective intelligence","volume":"8","author":"Burton","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Hum Behav"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20230720","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2023.0720","article-title":"Language-based game theory in the age of artificial intelligence","volume":"21","author":"Capraro","year":"2024","journal-title":"J R Soc Interface"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.12658\/E0004","article-title":"Disappearing minds in the age of artificial intelligence","volume":"15","author":"Perc","year":"2025","journal-title":"Jhs"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1038\/s44159-024-00392-z","article-title":"Using natural language processing to analyse text data in behavioural science","volume":"4","author":"Feuerriegel","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat Rev Psychol"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2308950121","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2308950121","article-title":"GPT is an effective tool for multilingual psychological text analysis","volume":"121","author":"Rathje","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2528527122","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2528527122","article-title":"Counterfeit judgments in large language models","volume":"122","author":"Perc","year":"2025","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B25","author":"Quattrociocchi"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chbah.2025.100207","article-title":"Homogenizing effect of large language models (LLMs) on creative diversity: an empirical comparison of human and ChatGPT writing","author":"Moon","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav. Artif. Hum"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2518443122","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2518443122","article-title":"The simulation of judgment in LLMs","volume":"122","author":"Loru","year":"2025","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.4324\/9780367853259-10","volume-title":"Network Science in Cognitive Psychology","author":"Vitevitch","year":"2019"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-018-1115-7","article-title":"The \u2018small world of words\u2019 English word association norms for over 12,000 cue words","volume":"51","author":"De Deyne","year":"2019","journal-title":"Behav Res Methods"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1111\/tops.12551","article-title":"Cognitive network science for understanding online social cognitions: a brief review","volume":"14","author":"Stella","year":"2022","journal-title":"Top Cogn Sci"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B31","first-page":"59","volume-title":"Proceedings of WordNet and other lexical resources workshop","author":"Fillmore","year":"2001"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2108423","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/2108423","article-title":"Cognitive network science: a review of research on cognition through the lens of network representations, processes, and dynamics","volume":"2019","author":"Siew","year":"2019","journal-title":"Complexity"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B33","author":"Haim"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1717362115","article-title":"Flexibility of thought in high creative individuals represented by percolation analysis","volume":"115","author":"Kenett","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198805090.001.0001","volume-title":"Networks","author":"Newman","year":"2018"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci10040101","article-title":"Applications of network science to education research: quantifying knowledge and the development of expertise through network analysis","volume":"10","author":"Siew","year":"2020","journal-title":"Educ. Sci"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/s11191-009-9200-z","article-title":"Coherent knowledge structures of physics represented as concept networks in teacher education","volume":"19","author":"Koponen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sci Educ"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci10050129","article-title":"Concept mapping in magnetism and electrostatics: core concepts and development over time","volume":"10","author":"Thurn","year":"2020","journal-title":"Educ. Sci"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B39","author":"Ciringione","year":"2025"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socnet.2011.07.001","article-title":"Triadic closure in two-mode networks: redefining the global and local clustering coefficients","volume":"35","author":"Opsahl","year":"2013","journal-title":"Soc. Netw"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e51282","DOI":"10.2196\/51282","article-title":"Assessing GPT-4\u2019s performance in delivering medical advice: comparative analysis with human experts","volume":"10","author":"Jo","year":"2024","journal-title":"JMIR Med. Educ"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1145\/3591196.3596827","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 15th Conference on Creativity and Cognition","author":"Kozachek","year":"2023"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chbah.2024.100103","article-title":"The fluency-based semantic network of LLMs differs from humans","volume":"3","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav. Artif. Hum"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1037\/h0048850","article-title":"The associative basis of the creative process","volume":"69","author":"Mednick","year":"1962","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1037\/aca0000731","article-title":"The Word-sentence construction (Woseco) task versus the verbal fluency task: capturing features of scientific creativity via semantic networks","author":"Haim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Psychol. Aesthet. Creat. Arts"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00407","article-title":"Investigating the structure of semantic networks in low and high creative persons","volume":"8","author":"Kenett","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front Hum Neurosci"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-018-0428-y","article-title":"Filling gaps in early word learning","volume":"2","author":"Hills","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Hum Behav"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-018-0422-4","article-title":"Knowledge gaps in the early growth of semantic feature networks","volume":"2","author":"Sizemore","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat Hum Behav"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-020-00985-7","article-title":"Hunters, busybodies and the knowledge network building associated with deprivation curiosity","volume":"5","author":"Lydon-Staley","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat Hum Behav"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","author":"Aeschbach","year":"2024","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/ra87s"},{"key":"2026031913350912400_cnag004-B51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8214","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-024-02455-8","article-title":"A tutorial on open-source large language models for behavioral science","volume":"56","author":"Hussain","year":"2024","journal-title":"Behav Res Methods"}],"container-title":["Journal of Complex Networks"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/comnet\/article-pdf\/14\/2\/cnag004\/67392990\/cnag004.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/comnet\/article-pdf\/14\/2\/cnag004\/67392990\/cnag004.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]],"date-time":"2026-03-19T17:35:24Z","timestamp":1773941724000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/comnet\/article\/doi\/10.1093\/comnet\/cnag004\/8527975"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Matjaz","family":"Perc","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"editor","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/comnet\/cnag004","relation":{},"ISSN":["2051-1329"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2051-1329","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]]},"article-number":"cnag004"}}