{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,4]],"date-time":"2026-03-04T16:59:55Z","timestamp":1772643595848,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":141,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,9]],"date-time":"2021-03-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1615248000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":67,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007729","name":"Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007729","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,16]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>The United States struggles to impose meaningful costs for destructive or disruptive cyber operations. This article argues that the United States' restrained responses stem from a desire to avoid risk in an inherently uncertain operational environment. The societal desire for risk avoidance is the prism through which policymakers address the cyber domain and deliberate responses to attacks. The article shows that two particular operational characteristics of cyberspace\u2014its complex adaptiveness and the ease of proliferation\u2014combine to increase the risk of misattribution and the risk of unintended effects, including collateral damage, inadvertent escalation and blowback. These characteristics present a particular obstacle for risk societies such as the United States in the application of meaningful punishments. In addition to establishing the roots of US restraint, the article traces the application of risk management practices, including preventive action, increasing resilience and consequence management, from the Obama administration to the Trump administration. The analysis reveals that risk management has underpinned the overall US approach to the cyber domain.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/cybsec\/tyab008","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,11]],"date-time":"2021-03-11T07:51:50Z","timestamp":1615449110000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Restraint under conditions of uncertainty: Why the United States tolerates cyberattacks"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6729-5235","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Monica","family":"Kaminska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Hague Program for Cyber Norms, Institute of Security and Global Affairs, Leiden University, Wijnhaven, Turfmarkt 99, 2511DP The Hague, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Politics and International Relations, University of Oxford, Manor Road Building, Manor Road, Oxford OX1 3UQ, 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