{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T15:17:58Z","timestamp":1777907878403,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,19]],"date-time":"2023-04-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1681862400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":108,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"EPSRC","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/P011454\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/P011454\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"EPSRC","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/P011446\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/P011446\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>While there has been an upsurge in interest in cyber resilience in organizations, we know little about the resilience of individuals to cyber attacks. Cyber resilience in a domestic or non-work setting is important because we know that the majority of people will face cyber threats in their use of technology across a range of contexts, and the ability to resist a cyber attack, or quickly recover and learn from a successful attack, is as important for individuals\u2019 wellbeing as it is for organizations. There is, unfortunately, a dearth of studies on the cyber resilience of people, in part because it is not clear how such a construct could be defined and then measured. In the present work, we present a series of five studies\u2014with a total sample of n\u00a0=\u00a01503\u2014that sought to develop and validate a theoretically based measure of cyber resilience for individuals. The final scale, comprising 16 items and 4 subscales (self-efficacy, learning and growth, social support, and helplessness), demonstrates good internal reliability and validity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1093\/cybsec\/tyad007","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,19]],"date-time":"2023-04-19T09:59:45Z","timestamp":1681898385000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Development of a new \u2018human cyber-resilience scale\u2019"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"9","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7019-7038","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adam N","family":"Joinson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Management, University of Bath , BA2 7AY , Bath, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Matt","family":"Dixon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Northumbria University , Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST , UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lynne","family":"Coventry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Northumbria University , Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST , UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pam","family":"Briggs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Northumbria University , Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST , UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/21582440211000049","article-title":"Encouraging employee engagement with cybersecurity: how to tackle cyber fatigue","volume":"11","author":"Reeves","year":"2021","journal-title":"SAGE Open"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101996","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2020.101996","article-title":"A systematic review of cyber-resilience assessment frameworks","volume":"97","author":"Sep\u00falveda\u00a0Estay","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput Secur"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib3","first-page":"265","article-title":"The wave analogy of resilience as applied to shipping operations","volume-title":"Cybersecur Resil Arctic","author":"Sep\u00falveda\u00a0Estay","year":"2020"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80741","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3085530","article-title":"Cyber resilience self-assessment tool (CR-SAT) for SMEs","volume":"9","author":"Carias","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib5","author":"Federal\u00a0Bureau\u00a0of\u00a0Investigation"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib6","author":"PurpleSec"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib7","author":"Verizon"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1021637011732","article-title":"Resilience in adolescents: protective role of social support, coping strategies, self-esteem, and social activities on experience of stress and depression","volume":"28","author":"Dumont","year":"1999","journal-title":"J Youth Adolesc"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib9","first-page":"376","article-title":"\u2018Security begins at home\u2019: determinants of home computer and mobile device security behavior","volume-title":"Comput Secur","author":"Thompson","year":"2017"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib10","first-page":"2873","article-title":"Scaling the security wall: developing a security behavior intentions scale (SeBIS)","author":"Egelman","year":"2015"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-0025.1987.tb03541.x","article-title":"Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms","volume":"57","author":"Rutter","year":"1987","journal-title":"Am J Orthopsychiatry"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.2307\/350669","article-title":"The children of Kauai: a longitudinal study from the prenatal period to age ten","volume":"35","author":"Werner","year":"1973","journal-title":"J Marriage Fam"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7591\/9781501711992","volume-title":"Overcoming the Odds: High Risk Children from Birth to Adulthood","author":"Werner","year":"1992"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1037\/a0019379","article-title":"Team resilience for young restaurant workers: research-to-practice adaptation and assessment","volume":"15","author":"Bennett","year":"2010","journal-title":"J Occup Health Psychol"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1741-3737.2002.00349.x","article-title":"Integrating family resilience and family stress theory","volume":"64","author":"Patterson","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Marriage Fam"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1002\/jclp.10019","article-title":"Understanding family resilience","volume":"58","author":"Patterson","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Clin Psychol"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib17","first-page":"62","article-title":"Beliefs, spirituality, and transcendence: keys to family resilience","volume-title":"Re-visioning Family Therapy: Race, Culture, and Gender in Clinical Practice","author":"Walsh","year":"1998","edition":"2nd ed."},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1545-5300.2003.00001.x","article-title":"Family resilience: a framework for clinical practice","volume":"42","author":"Walsh","year":"2003","journal-title":"Fam Process"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2017.05.013","article-title":"Recent developments in team resilience research in elite sport","volume":"16","author":"Morgan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr Opin Psychol"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2013.01.004","article-title":"Defining and characterizing team resilience in elite sport","volume":"14","author":"Morgan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychol Sport Exerc"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1037\/pas0000024","article-title":"Resilience through the lens of interactionism: a systematic review","volume":"27","author":"Pangallo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychol Assess"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.2307\/41409963","article-title":"Technostress: technological antecedents and implications","volume":"35","author":"Ayyagari","year":"2011","journal-title":"MIS Q"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.2753\/MIS0742-1222240109","article-title":"The impact of technostress on role stress and productivity","volume":"24","author":"Tarafdar","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Manag Inf Syst"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1002\/da.10113","article-title":"Development of a new resilience scale: the Connor\u2013Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC)","volume":"18","author":"Connor","year":"2003","journal-title":"Depress Anxiety"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.3109\/08039489609104315","article-title":"Fifty years of epidemiologic studies in child and adolescent psychiatry in Sweden","volume":"50","author":"Cederblad","year":"1996","journal-title":"Nord J Psychiatry"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.56.2.267","article-title":"Assessing coping strategies: a theoretically based approach","volume":"56","author":"Carver","year":"1989","journal-title":"J Pers Soc Psychol"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib27","first-page":"9","article-title":"Resilience\u2014the challenge of the unstable","volume-title":"Resilience Engineering: Concepts and Precepts","author":"Hollnagel","year":"2012"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib28","volume-title":"Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control","author":"Bandura","year":"1997"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.84.2.191","article-title":"Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change","volume":"84","author":"Bandura","year":"1977","journal-title":"Psychol Rev"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.37.2.122","article-title":"Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency","volume":"37","author":"Bandura","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am Psychol"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1177\/1359104507071062","article-title":"Resilience as a predictor of depressive symptoms: a correlational study with young adolescents","volume":"12","author":"Hjemdal","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib32","first-page":"165","article-title":"Development and psychometric evaluation of the Resilience Scale","volume":"1","author":"Wagnild","year":"1993","journal-title":"J Nurs Meas"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1080\/13607860802120763","article-title":"Examination of a theoretical model of psychological resilience in older age","volume":"12","author":"Windle","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aging Ment Health"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chbr.2021.100165","article-title":"The effects of antecedents and mediating factors on cybersecurity protection behavior","volume":"5","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput Hum Behav Rep"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1016\/1054-139X(93)90196-V","article-title":"Resilience: some conceptual considerations","volume":"14","author":"Rutter","year":"1993","journal-title":"J Adolesc Health"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02279805","article-title":"Salutogenic childhood factors reported by middle-aged individuals: follow-up of the children from the Lundby Study grown up in families experiencing three or more childhood psychiatric risk factors","volume":"244","author":"Cederblad","year":"1994","journal-title":"Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.1089\/cyber.2014.0255","article-title":"Creation of a computer self-efficacy measure: analysis of internal consistency, psychometric properties, and validity","volume":"17","author":"Howard","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1093\/bjsw\/bcw077","article-title":"Future expectations as a source of resilience among young people leaving care","volume":"47","author":"Sulimani-Aidan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br J Soc Work"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2019.07.034","article-title":"\u2018If you know what to do, will you take action to avoid mobile phishing attacks\u2019: self-efficacy, anticipated regret, and gender","volume":"101","author":"Verkijika","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comput Hum Behav"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1080\/02699930441000238","article-title":"Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought-action repertoires","volume":"19","author":"Fredrickson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cogn Emot"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1080\/00223890802634290","article-title":"Development and validation of the short grit scale (Grit-S)","volume":"91","author":"Duckworth","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Pers Assess"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.5539\/ass.v5n11p39","article-title":"Development of a new resilience scale: the Resilience in Midlife Scale (RIM Scale)","volume":"5","author":"Ryan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Asian Soc Sci"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1015219514621","article-title":"Parents of children with disabilities: resilience, coping, and future expectations","volume":"14","author":"Heiman","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Dev Phys Disabil"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib44","first-page":"1","article-title":"\u2018If it\u2019s important it will be a headline\u2019 cybersecurity information seeking in older adults","author":"Nicholson","year":"2019"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib45","first-page":"7","article-title":"Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis","volume-title":"Pract Assess Res Eval","author":"Costello","year":"2005"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1037\/1082-989X.4.3.272","article-title":"Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research","volume":"4","author":"Fabrigar","year":"1999","journal-title":"Psychol Methods"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-3984.2006.00003.x","article-title":"Comparison of the performance of varimax and promax rotations: factor structure recovery for dichotomous items","volume":"43","author":"Finch","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Educ Meas"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02291575","article-title":"An index of factorial simplicity","volume":"39","author":"Kaiser","year":"1974","journal-title":"Psychometrika"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib49","volume-title":"Multiple-factor Analysis; A Development and Expansion of the Vectors of Mind","author":"Thurstone","year":"1947"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.81.4.400","article-title":"Development and validation of work\u2013family conflict and family\u2013work conflict scales","volume":"81","author":"Netemeyer","year":"1996","journal-title":"J Appl Psychol"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1080\/10705500802222972","article-title":"The brief resilience scale: assessing the ability to bounce back","volume":"15","author":"Smith","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int J Behav Med"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1300\/J146v06n02_05","article-title":"A multidimensional approach to the assessment of trauma impact, recovery and resiliency: initial psychometric findings","volume":"6","author":"Harvey","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Aggress Maltreat Trauma"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1109\/MC.2020.3038411","article-title":"To improve cyber resilience, measure it","volume":"54","author":"Kott","year":"2021","journal-title":"Computer"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2018.11.003","article-title":"Using protection motivation theory in the design of nudges to improve online security behavior","volume":"123","author":"Van\u00a0Bavel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int J Hum Comput Stud"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102003","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2020.102003","article-title":"Developing cybersecurity culture to influence employee behavior: a practice perspective","volume":"98","author":"Alshaikh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput Secur"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib56","first-page":"1","article-title":"Training and embedding cybersecurity guardians in older communities","author":"Nicholson","year":"2021"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib57","first-page":"117","article-title":"CyberGuardians: improving community cyber resilience through embedded peer-to-peer support","author":"Nicholson","year":"2020"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1007\/s12103-021-09641-w","article-title":"Guardians against cyber abuse: who are they and why do they intervene?","volume":"48","author":"Vakhitova","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am J Crim Justice"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1002\/hbe2.291","article-title":"How do older adults feel about engaging with cyber-security?","volume":"3","author":"Morrison","year":"2021","journal-title":"Human Behav Emerg Technol"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"tyaa019","DOI":"10.1093\/cybsec\/tyaa019","article-title":"What (if any) behaviour change techniques do government-led cybersecurity awareness campaigns use?","volume":"6","author":"Van\u00a0Steen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Cybersecur"},{"key":"2023052911454404200_bib61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1336","DOI":"10.1080\/13669877.2019.1646315","article-title":"How to communicate cyber-risk? An examination of behavioral recommendations in cybersecurity crises","volume":"23","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Risk Res"}],"container-title":["Journal of Cybersecurity"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/cybersecurity\/article-pdf\/9\/1\/tyad007\/50476423\/tyad007.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/cybersecurity\/article-pdf\/9\/1\/tyad007\/50476423\/tyad007.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,29]],"date-time":"2023-05-29T11:46:21Z","timestamp":1685360781000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/cybersecurity\/article\/doi\/10.1093\/cybsec\/tyad007\/7130095"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,1]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,5]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/cybsec\/tyad007","relation":{},"ISSN":["2057-2085","2057-2093"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2057-2085","type":"print"},{"value":"2057-2093","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,1]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,1]]},"article-number":"tyad007"}}