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The repository collected local summary statistics from participating institutions and aggregated the global result to a COVID-19-related clinical query, previously posted by clinicians on a website. We developed both on-chain and off-chain components to store\/query these activity logs and their associated queries\/results on a blockchain for immutability, transparency, and high availability of research communication. We measured run-time efficiency of contract deployment, network transactions, and confirmed the accuracy of recorded logs compared to a centralized baseline solution.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The smart contract deployment took 4.5\u00a0s on an average. The time to record an activity log on blockchain was slightly over 2\u00a0s, versus 5\u20139\u00a0s for baseline. For querying, each query took on an average less than 0.4\u00a0s on blockchain, versus around 2.1\u00a0s for baseline.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The low deployment, recording, and querying times confirm the feasibility of our cross-cloud, blockchain-based federated data analysis system. We have yet to evaluate the system on a larger network with multiple nodes per cloud, to consider how to accommodate a surge in activities, and to investigate methods to lower querying time as the blockchain grows.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>\n               <jats:sec>\n                  <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Blockchain technology can be used to support federated data analysis among multiple institutions.<\/jats:p>\n               <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/jamia\/ocad049","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,14]],"date-time":"2023-03-14T12:27:55Z","timestamp":1678796875000},"page":"1167-1178","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Blockchain-enabled immutable, distributed, and highly available clinical research activity logging system for federated COVID-19 data analysis from multiple 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