{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]],"date-time":"2026-05-15T02:22:18Z","timestamp":1778811738777,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":147,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,9]],"date-time":"2023-12-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1702080000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pages\/standard-publication-reuse-rights"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001794","name":"University of Queensland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001794","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,16]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title><jats:p>Conversational agents (CAs) with emerging artificial intelligence present new opportunities to assist in health interventions but are difficult to evaluate, deterring their applications in the real world. We aimed to synthesize existing evidence and knowledge and outline an evaluation framework for CA interventions.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Materials and Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>We conducted a systematic scoping review to investigate designs and outcome measures used in the studies that evaluated CAs for health interventions. We then nested the results into an overarching digital health framework proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The review included 81 studies evaluating CAs in experimental (n\u2009=\u200959), observational (n\u2009=\u200915) trials, and other research designs (n\u2009=\u20097). Most studies (n\u2009=\u200972, 89%) were published in the past 5 years. The proposed CA-evaluation framework includes 4 evaluation stages: (1) feasibility\/usability, (2) efficacy, (3) effectiveness, and (4) implementation, aligning with WHO\u2019s stepwise evaluation strategy. Across these stages, this article presents the essential evidence of different study designs (n\u2009=\u20098), sample sizes, and main evaluation categories (n\u2009=\u20097) with subcategories (n\u2009=\u200940). The main evaluation categories included (1) functionality, (2) safety and information quality, (3) user experience, (4) clinical and health outcomes, (5) costs and cost benefits, (6) usage, adherence, and uptake, and (7) user characteristics for implementation research. Furthermore, the framework highlighted the essential evaluation areas (potential primary outcomes) and gaps across the evaluation stages.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion and Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>This review presents a new framework with practical design details to support the evaluation of CA interventions in healthcare research.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Protocol registration<\/jats:title><jats:p>The Open Science Framework (https:\/\/osf.io\/9hq2v) on March 22, 2021.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1093\/jamia\/ocad222","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,9]],"date-time":"2023-12-09T20:38:28Z","timestamp":1702154308000},"page":"746-761","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Evaluation framework for conversational agents with artificial intelligence in health interventions: a systematic scoping review"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"31","author":[{"given":"Hang","family":"Ding","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"RECOVER Injury Research Centre, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, The University of Queensland , Brisbane, QLD, Australia"},{"name":"STARS Education and Research Alliance, Surgical Treatment and Rehabilitation Service (STARS), The University of Queensland and Metro North Health , Brisbane, QLD, Australia"}]},{"given":"Joshua","family":"Simmich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RECOVER Injury Research Centre, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, The University of Queensland , Brisbane, QLD, Australia"},{"name":"STARS Education and Research Alliance, Surgical Treatment and Rehabilitation Service (STARS), The University of Queensland and Metro North Health , Brisbane, QLD, Australia"}]},{"given":"Atiyeh","family":"Vaezipour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RECOVER Injury Research Centre, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, The University of Queensland , Brisbane, QLD, Australia"},{"name":"STARS Education and Research Alliance, Surgical Treatment and Rehabilitation Service (STARS), The University of Queensland and Metro North Health , Brisbane, QLD, Australia"}]},{"given":"Nicole","family":"Andrews","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RECOVER Injury Research Centre, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, The University of Queensland , Brisbane, QLD, Australia"},{"name":"STARS Education and Research Alliance, Surgical Treatment and Rehabilitation Service (STARS), The University of Queensland and Metro North Health , Brisbane, QLD, Australia"},{"name":"The Tess Cramond Pain and Research Centre, Metro North Hospital and Health Service , Brisbane, QLD, Australia"},{"name":"The Occupational Therapy Department, The Royal Brisbane and Women\u2019s Hospital, Metro North Hospital and Health Service , Brisbane, QLD, Australia"}]},{"given":"Trevor","family":"Russell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"RECOVER Injury Research Centre, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, The University of Queensland , Brisbane, QLD, Australia"},{"name":"STARS Education and Research Alliance, Surgical Treatment and Rehabilitation Service (STARS), The University of Queensland and Metro North Health , Brisbane, QLD, Australia"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,9]]},"reference":[{"issue":"236","key":"2024021710224309900_ocad222-B1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1093\/mind\/LIX.236.433","article-title":"I.\u2014Computing machinery and intelligence","volume":"LIX","author":"Turing","year":"1950","journal-title":"Mind"},{"key":"2024021710224309900_ocad222-B2","first-page":"373","volume-title":"An Overview of Chatbot Technology","author":"Adamopoulou","year":"2020"},{"key":"2024021710224309900_ocad222-B3","volume-title":"AI in Health Care: The Hope, 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